comprising the Maha ̄bha ̄rata and the Ra ̄ma ̄yan.a (see Brockington in this
volume) and the vast collections of “ancient stories,” the Pura ̄n.as (see Matchett
in this volume). The epics reflect the rise of the theistic traditions and devotion
(bhakti) and are concerned with the restoration of righteousness (dharma);
a theme expressed in the idea of the incarnations (avata ̄ra) of the supreme
deity Vis.n.u, so richly elaborated in the Pura ̄n.as. These Sanskrit narrative
traditions develop themes present in the Veda, particularly the symbolism of the
sacrifice (yajña), and have penetrated all levels of society and different regional
languages. Thus there are local versions and interpretations of the epic stories,
recited in the villages and enacted in rituals (the cult of Draupadı ̄ in Tamilnadu,
for example; see Hiltebeitel 1988, 1991). The stories also reflect social tensions
between Brahman and King. The King cannot be so without the authentication
of the Brahmans who are in turn entirely dependent upon the King (Biardeau
1997: 78). The King and the Brahman have been understood as representing
a conflict in tradition between the King’s order of war and justice, embroiled
as he is in the impurity of death, and the Brahman’s and world renouncer’s
realm of transcendence. The King desires to participate in the sacred level of
the Brahman, but through performing rituals for the King the Brahman
becomes entangled in the world and moves away from the ideal of tran-
scendence (Heesterman 1976: 7–9). The marvelous myths of the Pura ̄n.as
can be seen as reflecting attempts by a group of Brahmans called Sma ̄rtas, the
followers of secondary revelation (smr.ti), to bring diversity under a single,
overarching and controlling system during the Gupta and post-Gupta period
(300–700ce).
But the dominance of the Sanskrit narrative traditions should not occlude the
importance of regional narratives in local languages and the great narrative
traditions of the South, particularly in Tamil. Here we have Tamil versions of the
Sanskrit material along with other accounts of myth and history particular to
Tamil culture. Long before the influence of Sanskrit or brahmanical culture,
Tamil culture was already rich in narrative traditions and all northern influ-
ences were adapted to Tamil sensibilities and ways. Of particular importance are
the genres of Tamil poetry of love and war and devotional literature expressing
an intense devotion to different forms of S ́iva and Vis.n.u (see Cutler in this
volume).
Political Essentialism
Because of this narrative and ritual diversity, some scholars have expressed skep-
ticism about the category “Hinduism” and even “Hindu.” But nevertheless both
terms are here to stay and indeed can be meaningfully used. A last point needs
to be made, namely that the term “Hindu” has become charged with cultural
and political meaning and arouses strong feelings when its integrity is appar-
ently threatened, as, for example, by the controversial claim that Hindus have
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