To quote Olivelle again, “the four a ̄s ́ramascame to be regarded as constitut-
ing four ideals of the Brahmanical ethic” that were, “as far as possible,” to be
“realized by each individual” (Olivelle 1993: 129–30). And each stage was inau-
gurated by the rites of passage appropriate to it. The Brahmans were less toler-
ant of choice than their ancestors and provided an ideological back-up to the
scheme of stages through the notion ofsvadharma, that is, dharmaappropriate
to each stage of life and, concomitantly, each varn.a. It was thus that the com-
pound notion ofvarn.a ̄s ́rama-dharmacame to be the definition of the religiomoral
life of the Brahmans and derivatively of the other twice-born varn.as.
While the notion of the life of the householder as a choice for life is present
in the Dharmasu ̄tras, the later notion ofa ̄s ́ramas as stages of life is elaborated in
the Dharmas ́a ̄stras, belonging to the first five centuries of the common era. Of
these the most frequently cited, perhaps, is the Ma ̄nava Dharmas ́a ̄stra, also known
as the Manusmr.tiand believed to have been in existence already in the second
century (see Bühler 1964: xiv). The householder’s stage in the life of the indi-
vidual is prescriptively introduced early in the text: “When, unswerving in his
chastity, [the student] has learned the Vedas, or two Vedas, or even one Veda, in
the proper order, he should enter the householder stage of life” (Manu 3.2 in
Doniger and Smith 1991: 43).
One notices a certain urgency here, a desire not to postpone too long the inau-
guration of the householder’s life. Appropriately, the making of a proper mar-
riage is taken up first (Manu 3.4–66). The qualities of a woman that make her
a good wife are listed. Eight forms of marriage and their varn.a-wise appro-
priateness are described. Exhortations on the duties of spouses and the respect
due to women follows. The men of the household are advised to “revere” and
“adorn” women if they wish for “good fortune”: “The deities delight in places
where women are revered... and [the family] thrives where women are not
miserable” (Manu 3.55–8).
The law book then proceeds to prescribe the establishment of the domestic
fires for cooking food and performing “five great sacrifices” as well as other
domestic rituals. These sacrifices, it is explained, enable the householder to
expiate the sins that are daily committed as a matter of necessity at the five
slaughterhouses of the home, namely the fireplace, the grindstone, the broom,
the mortar and pestle, and the water jar (Manu 3.68). The expiatory rites are:
“The study (of the Veda) is sacrifice to ultimate reality, and the refreshing liba-
tion is the sacrifice to the ancestors; the offering into the fire is for the gods, the
propitiatory offering of portions of food is for the disembodied spirits, and
the revering of guests is the sacrifice to men” (Manu 3.70). The continuity of
the tradition from the vedic sacrifices (mentioned earlier in this chapter) down
(in time) to S ́a ̄stric rituals is noteworthy.
The argument is enlarged to bring in the other three orders (corresponding
to the other stages of life): “since people in the other three stages of life are sup-
ported every day by the knowledge and food of the householder, therefore the
householder stage of life is the best” (Manu 3.78).^1 In the giving of offerings and
the householder tradition in hindu society 293