to Vais.n.avas (those whose devotional life centers on Vishnu). At least in Benares,
however, some S ́aivas (devotees of Shiva) and S ́a ̄ktas (devotees of the Goddess)
also participate in month-long devotional observances associated with Ka ̄rtik,
although they appear to be outnumbered by Vais.n.avas. Distinctive narratives,
practices of text recitation, and month-long ritual observances bring the month
to life in Benares in people’s homes, in temples, and along the gha ̄t.s, the stone
steps that line the banks of the Ganges river at the edge of the city.
The merits of Ka ̄rtik are especially lauded in sections of the Skanda and
Padma Pura ̄n.as that both go by the name “Ka ̄rtik Ma ̄ha ̄tmya” (Glorification of
Ka ̄rtik).^4 The two Ka ̄rtik Ma ̄ha ̄tmyas are not exactly the same, but they do share
a good deal of content. Significant portions of material appear in both texts in
identical or nearly identical form, and some narrative sections that are elabo-
rated at length in the Padma Pura ̄n.a’s version of the text are recounted in abbre-
viated form in the Skanda Pura ̄n.a’s version. Some portions of the Ka ̄rtik
Ma ̄ha ̄tmya of the Skanda Pura ̄n.a that are not reproduced in the Padma Pura ̄n.a’s
version of the text are found elsewhere in the Padma Pura ̄n.a in similar or iden-
tical form, and vice versa. During the month of Ka ̄rtik the Ka ̄rtik Ma ̄ha ̄tmyas
are recited aloud in homes and temples all over Benares, and it is considered to
be highly meritorious to recite daily a portion the Ka ̄rtik Ma ̄ha ̄tmya in the orig-
inal Sanskrit, have it recited by a Brahmin priest, or at least listen to it. Of the
two versions, that of the Padma Pura ̄n.a is by far the one most popularly recited
in Benares, and it is also the one most familiar to the women with whom I per-
formed pu ̄ja ̄throughout the month. Both versions of the Ka ̄rtik Ma ̄ha ̄tmya
include passages glorifying Ka ̄rtik, explanations of its religious importance,
descriptions of ritual practices that should be undertaken during Ka ̄rtik, narra-
tive material related to the month and its observances, and passages lauding
those who recite the text or listen to its recitation.
The month of Ka ̄rtik is also associated with a month-long votive observance
known as the Ka ̄rtik vrat(Skt.vrata). Mary McGee describes the term vratas it
is generally used in contemporary Hindu culture as referring to “a religiously
sanctioned votive observance, that is, a rite performed at a particular time with
a particular desire in mind” (McGee 1987: 17). McGee also notes that central to
the practice ofvratsin contemporary India is the notion ofniyam(Skt.niyama),
“rule” or “restriction,” which underscores an emphasis in the vrattradition on
practices that inculcate self-discipline and restraint of the senses (50, 93–5). In
keeping with this emphasis, the month-long Ka ̄rtik vratincludes a number of
injunctions for actions and behaviors that are to be upheld throughout the entire
month and that focus on disciplines and restraints pertaining to the mind, body,
and personal conduct.
Food restrictions figure prominently in votive observances, and the Ka ̄rtik
vrat, too, entails abstention from certain types of food for the entire month,
including eggplant, white radish, and certain types of pulses. The key obser-
vance of the Ka ̄rtik vrat, however, is Ka ̄rtik sna ̄n(Skt.sna ̄na), daily ritual bathing
before sunrise in a river or other publicly accessible body of water. In Benares
the goal for most Ka ̄rtik bathers is the Ganges River. The Ganges is considered a
the month of ka ̄rtik and women’s ritual devotions 329