notions and practices, can thus be traced back to Vedic times. The idea, too, that
the whispered (upa ̄m.s ́u) or inaudible utterance of a mantra is superior to, and
more effective than, its audible one, the silent (tus.n.ı ̄m) one being the highest of
all, dates from the Vedic period. For the S ́atapathabra ̄h.man.a, the silent or indis-
tinct (anirukta) speech is the highest one of all, since it represents the unlimited.
Ritual speech, says the same text, must be silent, “since seed (retas) is cast
silently.” Another theme which continued to be discussed in later times is the
question of the meaning or meaninglessness (a ̄narthakya) of mantras. It was first
taken up in the Nirukta, their meaninglessness being upheld by the grammar-
ian Kautsa, according to whom mantras are uttered simply for the utterance’s
sake – ucca ̄ran.ama ̄tren.a; the question being less whether they themselves mean
anything than whether they are uttered to express a meaning which they have,
or, on the contrary, do not contain. The issue is still relevant, for while some
mantras are evidently meaningless, they all have, as ever, a ritual function or a
magical efficacy.
Mantras after the Vedas
The Vedic mantra needed to be considered first, not only because it came first
historically, but also because in the Vedas the term mantra had the special, wider
meaning of hymn or chant. Also because, as we have seen, some general and
durable mantric characteristics appeared in those early times. The Vedic period,
however, cannot be separated from the one that follows. There never was a dis-
continuity: Vedic mantras, as well as some Vedic rites, never ceased to be in use,
since orthodox Hinduism has always regarded itself as ”Vedic.” While Vedic
hymns and chants recited during solemn Vedic rites tended to fall into disuse,
other mantras of Vedic origin went on being used in the worship of deities and
in various public or private, daily, or calendrical rituals, and still more in the life-
cycle rites, the sam.ska ̄ras, which consisted mainly in the utterance (and/or
transmission) of mantras and which ranged from the rite performed to ensure
conception to those carried out after death. Every morning all twice-born male
Hindus went on (and are still supposed to go on) reciting the sacred ga ̄yatrı ̄(also
calledsavitrı ̄), from R.gveda 3.62 (tat savitur varen.yam bhargo devasya dhı ̄mahi
dhiyo yo nah.pracodaya ̄t), preceded by OM. and the three vya ̄hr.tis,bhurahbhuvah.
svah.. Practically all the daily activities (as well as the exercise of bodily functions)
of the pious Hindu (or at least of the observant brahmin) were to be accompa-
nied, preceded, or followed by the utterance of mantras, mostly Vedic ones.
However, as cults other than the S ́rauta and Sma ̄rta Vedic cults^4 developed, other
mantras appeared. In these new systems, which tended henceforth to replace
the Vedic religion and which are called Paura ̄n.ic since their textual theological
and mythical basis was the vast literature of the Pura ̄n.as, other mantras were
added to or displaced the Vedic ones – even though some traditions, the Vais.n.ava
ones especially, went on using S ́rauta mantras to enhance their claim to
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