The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron,
that is before ca. 1200–1000 bce. Internal evidence indicates that most hymns
were composed over a span of just five generations, under the Pu ̄ ru and Bharata
chieftains, notably the great Bharata king Suda ̄s; they represent the middle
R.gveda period, with such prominent poets as Vis ́va ̄mitra and the East Iranian(?)
immigrant Vasis.t.ha. A few older hymns apparently come from other tribes, such
as the Anu-Druhyu and Yadu-Turvas ́a.
They were composed by members of various clans of poets (among which 7
major ones, RV 2–8). The hymns that belonged to them were transmitted as
“private property” which often was “copyrighted” by including the names of the
individual poets or clans or by typical refrains. Most of the poets belonged to, or
were later attributed to, the An.girasa clans and also the Ka ̄n.va. The names
attributed to the authors of R.gvedic hymns seem to be partially correct, when
corroborated by self-reference or indirectly by certain poetic devices; however,
many of the names recorded in the clearly post-R.gvedic Anukraman. ̄ (“list” ofı
poets, deities, meters) are artificially derived from some key words in the hymns;
these names often do not correspond to those given by the Sa ̄mavedic,
Yajurvedic, and Atharvavedic traditions.
Poetic Speech
The most characteristic feature of all R.gvedic poetry is the power and prestige
of speech (va ̄c) and verbal behaviorin general, without which the RV itself would
not exist. The gods (but also the human listeners, especially the sponsors of the
ritual) were most pleased by “the newest hymn,” composed with poetic crafts-
manship and virtuosity – to which they were entitled as ritual guests; the better
the hymn, the greater the reward – to the poet from the patron, to the patron
from the god.
Most prized, however, is the putting into words of the much celebrated R.ta
(=Avestanasˇ.a)“active realization of truth” or Wahrheitsverwirklichung (cf.
Lüders 1944, 1951, 1959 “Truth”), is commonly still translated “cosmic order”
or “cosmic harmony.” The vital force of R.ta indeed has the power to keep the
cosmos and human society functioning correctly. This untranslatable concept
thus is similar to the later Hindu dharma. The opposite concept ofdruh- (Avest.
druj) “deceiving, cheating action, (Be)-Trug” (cf. Engl. be-tray) signifies active
untruth. Another contrast to R.taseems to be nir-r.ti, the absolute disappearance
(nir-) of “active, creative truth, law, order,” that is absolute destruction, a sort of
hell of absolute darkness, with no food, drink, possibility of children, etc. (RV
7.104).
Capturing R.ta in words is effected by bráhman, the “formulation” or captur-
ing in words of a significant and non-self-evident truth (Thieme 1952, cf. Renou
and Silburn 1949, Gonda 1950, Schmidt 1968a). The formulator (brahmán-) of
such truths has special powers, effecting this world and the cosmos. The same
power of correctly stated truth is found in the (later) *satyakriya ̄or “act of truth”
70 michael witzel