chemical evolution: Slow change in complex but nonliving chemicals,
operating in a similar manner to natural selection and possibly leading to the
creation of the ¿ rst true living organisms.
chiefs: Anthropological term for powerful leaders in non-state societies
whose power rests largely on their aristocratic birth, though they may also
wield signi¿ cant coercive power.
coevolution: When two species develop a close symbiotic relationship,
evolutionary change in one species must be followed by evolutionary change
in the other, so the two species begin to evolve together.
collective learning: The ability, unique to human beings, to share in
great detail what each individual learns through symbolic language;
collective learning may be the source of the unique technological creativity
of our species.
collision margins: Tectonic margins where plates are driven together; either
one plate dives beneath the other (as the Paci¿ c plate is diving under South
America), or both plates rise to form mountain chains at the borders between
them (as in the Himalayas).
Columbian exchange: Term coined by Alfred Crosby for the exchange of
diseases, crops, peoples, and goods that followed the linking of the different
world zones after 1500 C.E.
complexity: Entities with many precisely linked internal components
and novel “emergent” properties, whose survival depends on À ows of
free energy.
consumer capitalism: The most recent phase in the history of capitalism,
in which productivity levels are so high that pro¿ ts can only be realized
by selling goods to the wageworkers who produce them; requires paying
workers high enough wages to purchase and encouraging steadily raising
average consumption levels. Consumer capitalism originated in the early
20 th century and is typical of the wealthiest capitalist countries today.