between communists and nationalists in the other, resulted in modern States
with secular realms and expanded spaces for rational science and commerce-
even when opposed to the traditionalism of either the Indian caste system
with its notions of ritual purity or the Chinese clan system that depended on
filial devotion. Thus Hindu and Confucian societies have nevertheless been
able to accommodate themselves to modernity and indeed have become major
actors in the world. In turn, they have rapidly growing economies. They
accommodated themselves to modernity by providing significant spaces for
rational, purposive action, as evident in secular procedures for business, polit-
ical administration and scientific endeavors.^8 While Hindus may not eat beef,
they may well write software and/or answer callers from the US. India has-
a functioning democracy and a large middle class-the world’s largest.
Confucians may respect the spirits of elders, yet they have introduced eco-
nomic rationality to produce much of the clothes and electronic tschoschkes
for the West. Most recently, they have initiated leading edge research in com-
puters, pharmaceuticals and electronics. But the Islamic societies of the Middle
East, noting great variations between Lebanon and Sudan, Morocco and
Yemen, have remained economically stagnant, politically torpid and intel-
lectually moribund.^9 Save oil production or terrorism, they are irrelevant to
the larger world economy.
The Dialectic of Un-enlightenment
The sociology of religion, as outlined by Weber and Durkheim, said little
about Islam. Moreover, fundamentalism had not yet become a major social
force. Weber ’s scattered writings on Islam as a “salvation religion” noted its
“elective affinity” for warriors (Weber 1978). Muslim knights, unlike their
medieval Christian counterparts, were less inclined to asceticism. Moreover,
its legal system was based on religiously schooled professional jurists, kadi
justice based on the Quran stood in contradistinction to the secular nature of
evidentiary-based Western justice. Despite his insights, Weber did not offer
From the Caliphate to the Shaheedim• 297(^8) We do not assume that modernity means democratic, and based on “popular sov-
ereignty”, rather, modern forms of political legitimacy do not rest on God’s will, as
interpreted by clerics and religious virtuosos. As will be argued, this separation of
Church (Temple, Pagoda or Mosque) and State has been essential for modernity. So
too are double entry bookkeeping and commercial transparency. 9
To be sure, Turkey, while Muslim, is progressing toward modernity and some-
day, EU membership. Similarly, Lebanon and some of the smaller Gulf states, openly
embracing rational commerce, are also showing growth. Moreover, they support free,
and often critical media like Al Ahram and Al Jazeera.