who imposed various modernist, nationalist, socialist, or even royalist regimes.^28
In some cases, anti-colonial independence movements from the democratic
socialism of Mossadeq, to the Pan-Arab socialism of Nasser or Kessem, vari-
ants of secular nationalism, socialism or communism were undermined by
Western (American) interventions and coups. Without underlying mass con-
stituencies of either a rational bourgeoisie or internationalist proletariat classes
seeking reform and democratization, the result was powerful central States
with autocratic rule that was typically intolerant of an open public sphere,
democratic participation or popular dissent (Moaddel 2005). In some cases,
e.g., Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Libya, and even Iraq, following the military over-
throw of a monarchy, there have been spaces for secularism and separation
of Mosque and State. But, except for Turkey and its “enforced democratiza-
tion” from above, despite various modernizing efforts, without traditions of
“popular sovereignty” embraced by a powerful class, there has been very lit-
tle in the way of genuine democratic governance with competing political
parties, support for human rights and a free, critical press that can criticize
the government and its leaders. Indeed thousands of political dissidents
languished in prisons and/or faced torture in Egyptian prisons, while others
have often been murdered en mass as in Syria and Iraq. And it should be
noted, that quite often such governments, however unpopular among their
own people, have often been sustained by US largesse to secure bases and/or
allies in wars against “communism” and more recently, terrorism.^29
Material and ideological barriers to change
As Moore (1966) argued, the nature of pre-modern authority/land owner-
renter relationships shaped modern governance. Between its religiously-based
commercial laws/practices andkadi justice, Islam did not foster a merchant
class like the European bourgeoisie who made capitalism both dynamic and
inequitable. There were no Islamic equivalents to either the European anti-
clerical secular intelligentsia (the philosophes) who valorized Reason or the
commercial bourgeoisie, driven by an “inner determination” rooted in “sal-
vation anxiety”, who became the bearers of a rational, secular modernity who
310 • Lauren Langman
(^28) Turkey of course was never colonized, rather with the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate,
Ataturk took over. 29
It is thus not surprising that many of the Islamic groups oppose the US for sup-
porting governments like the Saudis, the Egyptians or the Israelis who are seen as
serving the US and maintaining an illegal occupation of the West Bank.