orthodoxy. But it is not simply modern values that are disdained; there are
a number of actual grievances ranging from the support of unjust rulers to
the support of Israel. While there are common threads in most fundamen-
talisms, Islamisms have taken a particularly onerous and violent direction in
various forms of violent struggle seen as jihad,ranging from armed militias
to martyrdom (shaheeden) operations, from hijacking planes to bus bombings
as a strategy. Why has this occurred?
A Critical Theoretical approach to fundamentalism, political Islam, quareli-
gious ideology, must chart the political, economic and cultural determinants
that give rise to an “elective affinity” with authoritarian precepts and its pro-
clivities to foster, or perhaps only legitimate violence. As such, I would sug-
gest that there are a number of underlying similarities between classical
fascism and Islamism as a form of clerical fascism (Berlet 2005). Just as fas-
cism grew out of economic dislocations, blocked economic opportunities and
political humiliation over military defeats, so too have Islamisms emerged in
societies with, limited economic futures, few job opportunities and legacies
of political domination that often endure after independence. Large swaths
of the Islamic Middle East remain mired in stagnation and, often, abject
poverty. Not surprisingly, fundamentalism can often be found in classes and
communities where certain populations, especially young and often unmar-
ried men, are unemployed, underemployed and face social discrimination.
Without a livelihood, they cannot marry. Such men often find solace in com-
pensatory ideologies that provide dignity. This is often true for the better
educated as well. Both Fascism and Islamism, as reactionary, compensatory
ideologies, promise a glorious future both individually and collectively if
people are obedient, subservient to charismatic leaders, and willing to sacrifice,
and, if needed, use violence to achieve transformative/restorative goals. Both
ideologies appealed primarily to the petty bourgeoisie, but found many fol-
lowers in other classes.
Thus, to consider Islamism as a general response to the economic conse-
quences of globalization and its cultural values, we need to look at its “elec-
tive affinity” for people at particular class locations especially vulnerable to
social strains. Following Marx, Weber and Freud, religion provides compen-
sations (opiates) and psychological gratifications For Marx, religion both sus-
tained and assuaged the consequences of class domination. It was “the opiate
of the people”. But at the same time, it was an expression of “real”, mate-
rial suffering. For Weber, religion offered a theodicy (a theology of benevo-
322 • Lauren Langman