Part 2 – Human augmentation technologiesNon-invasive methods of neurostimulation, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, use
electrical means to increase or decrease the excitability of areas of the brain, potentially
affecting mental processes such as neural plasticity and memory, attention, creativity, and
many others. Neurostimulation has the benefit of being relatively non-invasive (although
success correlates with placing electrodes accurately over the right area of the brain) and,
so far, appears safe. It is also a flexible system but can only work on functions located
in regions of the brain close enough to the skull wall. It is notable for being used by DIY
‘brain hackers’ and, reportedly, by some professional athletes.
Future opportunities. The potential applications of brain interfaces are staggering.
Therapeutic benefits could include: cure of paralysis; restoration of sight and hearing;
mental health management; and treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. Brain interfaces could
also be used as powerful diagnostic tools and inform the development of other human
augmentation technologies and methods. In terms of augmentation, brain interfaces
could: enhance concentration and memory function; lead to new forms of collaborative
intelligence; or even allow new skills and knowledge to be simply ‘downloaded’.
Manipulating the physical world with thoughts alone would also be possible; anything from
a door handle to an aircraft could, in theory and more recently in practice, be controlled
from anywhere in the world.
Future challenges. There is still a huge amount that is not known about the brain. It has
not yet been possible to combine stimulations to achieve more complex functionality,
nor has it been possible to target specific brain areas with absolute confidence outside
of controlled conditions. Interpretation of low intensity brain signals emanating from the
proximal surface of the brain is achievable but capturing complex signal from deep brain
functions without insertion of electrodes is as yet unachievable. There are also risks that
brain interfaces could be hacked into and exploited by malign actors.
Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals play a role in many important forms of augmentation including physical,
cognitive, emotional, motivational and sensory processes. Pharmaceuticals are one of
the oldest forms of human augmentation. Cognition-enhancing pharmaceuticals range
from caffeine, nicotine and various herbal supplements, through to stimulants such as
amphetamines, methylphenidate and modafinil. These typically affect simple, low-level
functions such as alertness and memory rather than high-level intelligence. Other types
of cognitive augmentation include modulation of blood glucose and hormones, such as
adrenaline and testosterone.
Pharmaceuticals that enhance physical performance include anabolic steroids, which
stimulate muscle growth (although they can have unpleasant or even deadly side effects).
Creatine has been proven to deliver increased power output and fatigue resistance,
while at the same time it increases the risk of being overweight and injury. Erythropoietin
(EPO) is a hormone produced mainly by the kidneys and has been synthesised and used
illegally in sport to boost performance by increasing oxygen retaining capacity in the
blood. Performance gains can be impressive but the side effects – even in cases that
are carefully controlled – can cause blood clotting, stroke and even death. Meldonium is
a drug legally prescribed to treat coronary artery disease but has been used by athletes
(and Soviet soldiers in the 1979 Afghan War) – to enhance physical performance.
Meldonium does, however, come with adverse side effects such as nausea, headaches
and dizziness.