- Having children focus on how phonemes are produced
enhances phonemic awareness (Castiglioni-Spalten
and Ehri 2003). Children may view pictures of mouth
movements, talk about what happens when they produce
a sound, and watch the teacher’s mouth or their own
mouths using mirrors as they produce sounds. Accurate
pronunciation is important. - Decoding instruction should be explicit, systematic,
and intensive; it targets some words the children are
unlikely to know by sight to ensure children are applying
decoding skills rather than simply recalling a word.
Learning skills out of context (such as with word lists) is
important, but children should have many opportunities to apply their skills in context (that is,
while reading passages or books). Practicing with texts that contain a high proportion of words
children can decode successfully along with teacher feedback that encourages application of
decoding skills is important (Spear-Swerling 2011). - Word building activities, in which children manipulate letter cards or tiles to build words, are
effective in developing the decoding skills of children experiencing difficulty with decoding
(Spear-Swerling 2011).
In terms of other aspects of literacy development, research indicates the following: - Engaging young children in enactive representation of what they have read increases the
likelihood they will remember what they have read, even after some time has passed. Research
demonstrates that when young children manipulate toys and watch or imagine toys being
manipulated (acting out a text), children’s comprehension of stories generally increases (Connor,
and others 2014). - Children “at risk for language disabilities” improve with extensive opportunities to hear and use
complex oral language (Connor, and others 2014, x). - Effective interventions for oral language development in young children include reading
aloud (especially rereadings, explanations of word meanings, and interactions around the
text), explicit vocabulary instruction, language-rich and responsive
interactions, and complex dramatic play (Roberts 2011).
To reiterate, the first years of schooling are a profoundly
important time on the pathway to literacy, and the quality of the
curriculum and instruction offered to children in the transitional
kindergarten through grade one span has long lasting implications.
The 2014 report from the Institute of Education Sciences (Connor,
and others) notes that actions taken in kindergarten and first grade
can prevent future reading difficulties for many students.
English Language Development in the Grade Span
The content and instructional practices described in this chapter are important for all children, but
they are critical for EL children if they are to develop English language proficiency and fully participate
in intellectually rich curricula across the disciplines. Instruction is provided by highly-skilled teachers
who understand not only the core instructional practices in transitional kindergarten through grade
one, but also how to identify and address the particular language and academic learning strengths and
needs of their EL students. To support the simultaneous development of English, content knowledge,
and the ability to express content knowledge effectively, teachers consider how EL children learn
Decoding instruction should
be explicit, systematic, and
intensive; it targets some
words the children are
unlikely to know by sight to
ensure children are applying
decoding skills rather than
simply recalling a word.... actions taken in
kindergarten and first
grade can prevent
future reading
difficulties for many
students.
166 | Chapter 3 Transitional Kindergarten to Grade 1