As noted throughout the framework, to serve students well, teachers conduct formative
assessment processes along with interim and benchmark assessments to determine students’ progress
toward learning goals. What teachers learn about each student through these processes informs
immediate and subsequent instruction, with the purpose being to close the gap between the student’s
current status and the learning goal (Heritage 2010). Students who are experiencing difficulty should
be identified quickly; their specific needs diagnosed carefully, and intensive and targeted instruction
provided deliberately by skillful teachers. By necessity, instruction for these students is differentiated
and typically provided in small group settings. Teachers leverage all available resources at the site
(and beyond, as appropriate) to ensure that each and every student advances as quickly as possible
toward grade-level expectations. Schools employ a multi-tiered system of supports. Parents are
included in the discussions. (See chapter 9.)
Chapter 2 in this ELA/ELD Framework identifies several important instructional approaches for
supporting students strategically. For example, chapter 2 describes scaffolding instruction, use of
students’ primary language, and grouping—important supports in all grade levels. In this section,
recommendations and findings from research about supporting adolescents who are experiencing
difficulty in literacy include the following:
Overall- Motivation often decreases over the years, especially in students who are experiencing
academic difficulties, and so should be given thoughtful attention (Biancarosa and Snow 2006;
O’Connor and Goodwin 2011). [See figure 6.2 in this chapter.] - Extended literacy experiences are necessary for effecting change in reading and writing. A panel
report recommended two to four hours of literacy instruction and practice daily that takes place
in language arts and content classes (Biancarosa and Snow 2006). - Content area classes should include a focus on disciplinary literacy and reinforce the skills that
students experiencing difficulty are learning; at the same time, specialists should use content
area materials as a basis for practicing the reading skills they are teaching (Biancarosa and
Snow 2006; Carnegie Council on Advancing Adolescent Literacy 2010).
Meaning Making (reading comprehension) - Reading extensively and widely and writing about what they are reading builds students’
capacity to comprehend (Underwood and Pearson 2004). - Explicitly teaching students to use strategies that good readers use, such as drawing on
background knowledge and creating graphic organizers to gain control of the macrostructure of
a text, improves comprehension (Biancarosa and Snow 2006; Underwood and Pearson 2004). - Teaching students to use one or more metacognitive strategies, such as planning for a task and
self-monitoring understanding, improves their comprehension of text (Klingner, Morrison, and
Eppolito 2011).
Language Development - Coordinating vocabulary instruction so that students have multiple exposures increases the
likelihood that they will acquire targeted words (Butler, and others 2010). - Integrating explicit vocabulary instruction into curricula enhances students’ ability to acquire
vocabulary from content-area textbooks and other texts (Kamil, and others 2008). - Providing direct instruction in word meanings, instruction in strategies that promote
independent vocabulary acquisition, and opportunities for rich discussion of texts enhances
students’ vocabulary acquisition (Kamil, and others 2008).
542 | Chapter 6 Grades 6 to 8