Sex-Related Comparisons: Observations 129(d=+.19). However, a number of variables
moderated these effects. One important
moderator was the procedure used to elicit
moral reasoning. Sex differences were larger
when participants were asked to describe
their own personal dilemmas (the procedure
used by Gilligan) than when participants re-
sponded to standard dilemmas (the proce-
dure used by Kohlberg). Thus it may not be
that men and women reason about morality
differently; instead, men and women may be
faced with different kinds of moral dilem-
mas. Women face those that require a care
orientation, and men face those that require
a justice orientation.
Reactions to a real-life moral dilemma
were examined in a web-based survey ad-
ministered across the United States within
a couple of months after 9/11 (Mainiero,
Gibson, & Sullivan, 2008). Reactions were
examined in terms of a care or justice ori-
entation. Women scored higher than men
on both care orientation reactions (e.g.,
I have a greater need to connect with others)
and justice orientation reactions (e.g., I am
concerned about the resolution of this con-
flict and achieving justice), although the sex
difference in the care orientation was larger.
Thus, women may have had a stronger re-
sponse overall than men but did not differ
so much from men in their relative response.fourth stage, which emphasizes rules and
duties, or the postconventional stage, which
emphasizes individual rights and personal
standards.
Gilligan (1982) argued that women do
not have a moral orientation that is inferior
to men’s but an orientation that is different
from men’s. She argued that women have a
morality of responsibilitythat emphasizes
their connection to others, whereas men
have amorality of rightsthat emphasizes
their separation from others. Women are
concerned with their responsibilities to oth-
ers, others’ feelings, and the effect their be-
havior has on relationships, whereas men
are concerned with rights, rules, and stan-
dards of justice. Gilligan stated, “While she
places herself in relation to the world...
he places the world in relation to himself”
(p. 35). Kohlberg’s stages of moral develop-
ment emphasize the importance of devel-
oping a sense of justice, whereas Gilligan
emphasizes the importance of a responsibility
or care orientation.
Do women and men really think about
morality differently? A meta-analysis of 160
independent samples showed a small sex dif-
ference in moral reasoning (Jaffe & Hyde,
2000). Women scored higher than men on a
care orientation (d=-.28), and men scored
higher than women on a justice orientationTABLE 4.1 KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Preconventional Concern for consequences; focus on punishment; obedience
- Concern for consequences; motivated by rewards
- Conventional Conformity to others’ expectations; concern with disapproval
- Adhere to legitimate authority; emphasize rules and justice
- Postconventional Concern with community respect; focus on law
- Developing internal standards; moral principles
Source: Kohlberg (1963).
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