The Psychology of Gender 4th Edition

Sex-Related Comparisons: Theory 139

FIGURE 5.2 Factors such as competition

and threat to social status may evoke a biological

response which could increase aggressive behavior.

Some factors, such as noise and alcohol, could

magnify that response, whereas other factors, such

as the knowledge the behavior is inappropriate for

the situation, could inhibit the aggressive response.

Source: Adapted from McAndrew (2009).

Threat to Status

(e.g., loss of

sporting event)

Competition

(e.g., games)

Biological

Response

(testosterone)

Aggressive

Behavior

Noise,

Alcohol

Inappropriate

for Situation

Another way to examine the effect of

hormones on cognition and behavior is to

examine the relation of different levels of

hormones across women and men to a be-

havior. This kind of correlational design

has been used by researchers who sample

the amniotic fluid of pregnant women to

measure prenatal exposure to testosterone.

Higher levels of testosterone have been asso-

ciated with more male-typical play behavior

in 6- to 10-year-old girls and boys (Auyeung

et al., 2009), greaterlateralizationof lan-

guage at age 6 in girls and boys (Lust et al.,

2010), and less empathy in 4-year-old girls

and boys (Knickmeyer et al., 2006).

Some studies have begun to manipu-

late hormones to examine their effects on be-

havior. In one such experiment, testosterone

was administered to healthy women and was

found to improve their performance on the

mental rotation task (Aleman et al., 2004). In

a study of male college students, testosterone

versus a placebo was administered prior to

playing an economics game (Zak et al., 2009).

The men who received the testosterone were

less generous than the control group, and

higher testosterone levels were associated

with greater punishment of the competitor.

The relation of male hormones to

gender-related behavior also has been stud-

ied among people who are genetically male

(XY chromosome) but have an insensitivity

to androgens. These individuals have what

is known ascomplete androgen insensitiv-

ity syndrome(CAIS) and are born with testes

instead of a uterus but have female genitalia.

Recall that all fetuses begin with female geni-

talia but masculinizing hormones alter the

genitals to become male; this does not occur

in CAIS. The testes are typically surgically

removed, and children are reared as females.

One study compared 22 girls with CAIS to

healthy girls and found no differences in

gender-related behavior or personality traits

(Hines, Ahmed, & Hughes, 2003). Here is a

case where hormones seemed to override ge-

netics. Historically, many people in the medi-

cal community believed hormones (and the

social environment) could override genes in

determining gender-role behavior. See Side-

bar 5.2 for a discussion of a noteworthy case

that challenged this perception.

If androgens have a “masculinizing”

effect on girls, do estrogens have a “feminiz-

ing” effect? Most of the research addressing

this question has come from exposure to a

synthetic estrogen, diethylstilbestrol (DES),

prescribed for pregnant women in the 1960s

to prevent miscarriage. Its use was discontin-

ued when it was linked to cancer. In a sam-

ple of over 8,000 men and women exposed

to DES, there was no evidence that exposure

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