234 Chapter 7more similar to the language used by women
in Western cultures (e.g., the United States;
Wetzel, 1988). Parallels have been drawn
between Japanese versus Western language
and female versus male language. The Japa-
nese value language that communicates sen-
sitivity to others’ needs, and language that
includes empathy and agreement. Whereas
people from Western cultures would view
this language as powerless language, the Japa-
nese do not. Power, in and of itself, is viewed
differently by the two cultures. Americans,
for example, view power as an attribute of
a person, so a person can use more or less
powerful language; the Japanese view power
as an attribute of a social role or a position.
Thus the position confers power, regardless
of the language used. It does not make sense
to talk about powerful language in Japan.
In fact, language viewed as dominant in the
United States—being assertive, interrupting
someone, challenging someone—is viewed as
childish in Japan.
One gendered interaction that has been
studied in terms of language is interactions
between patients and physicians. Does a
physician’s sex affect the interaction? Pa-
tient’s sex? The combination of the two? See
Sidebar 7.3 for a discussion of this research.TAKE HOME POINTS
■ Men’s language is more direct, succinct, and instru-
mental, whereas women’s language is more indirect,
elaborative, and affective.
■ Sex differences in language are moderated by a host
of variables, including the sex of the interaction partner
and the length of the interaction.
■ Women’s and men’s language becomes more similar
in mixed-sex than same-sex dyads, providing some evi-
dence of accommodation.■ The topic more than the language used distinguishes
male versus female conversation.Nonverbal Behavior
Recall the two interactions described in the
previous section on language. Now, imag-
ine you can see the people talking. What
aspects of their behavior—other than their
language—provide you with information
about the interaction? Is it only people’s ver-
bal response that indicates whether they are
listening? What about eye contact? What
about posture? If someone touches you, does
it increase the intimacy of the interaction or
make you feel uncomfortable?
A lot more information is contained in
an interaction besides the language used. As-
pects of communication that do not include
words are referred to asnonverbal behav-
ior. The domains of nonverbal behavior that
scientists have investigated, especially with
respect to gender, are smiling, gazing, inter-
personal sensitivity (decoding), accuracy in
conveying emotion (encoding), and touching.
In 2000, Hall, Carter, and Horgan con-
ducted a meta-analytic review of the literature
on nonverbal behavior. They concluded that
(1) females smile and gaze more than males;
(2) females stand closer to others, face others
more directly, and are more likely to touch
other people; (3) males have more expansive
body movements (i.e., take up more space)
than females; (4) females are more accurate
in interpreting others’ emotional expressions
and are better able to convey emotions than
males. Interestingly, college students’ percep-
tions of sex differences in nonverbal behavior
correspond with the sex differences found
in the meta-analytic reviews (Briton & Hall,
1995). Thus people’s beliefs about sex dif-
ferences in nonverbal behavior appear to beM07_HELG0185_04_SE_C07.indd 234 6/21/11 8:11 AM