The Psychology of Gender 4th Edition

48 Chapter 2

different ways that people conceptualized

and measured gender roles. I have divided

the history of the field into four periods that

approximate those identified by Richard

Ashmore (1990). Each time period is marked

by one or more key figures in the field.

1894–1936: Sex Differences in Intelligence

The first period focused on the differences

between men and women and was marked

by the publication of a book by Ellis (1894)

entitledMan and Woman, which called for a

scientific approach to the study of the simi-

larities and differences between men and

women. No consideration was yet given to

personality traits or roles associated with sex.

Thus, gender roles were not part of the pic-

ture. The primary goal of this era was to ex-

amine if (really, to establish that) men were

intellectually superior to women. To accom-

plish this goal, scientists turned to the anat-

omy of the brain (Shields, 1975).

First, scientists focused on the size of

the human brain. Because women’s heads

and brains are smaller than those of men,

there seemed to be conclusive evidence that

women were intellectually inferior. How-

ever, men were also taller and weighed more

than women; when body size was taken into

account, the evidence for sex differences in

intelligence became less clear. If one com-

puted a ratio of the weight of the brain to

the weight of the body, women appeared to

have relatively larger brains. If one computed

the ratio of the surface area of the brain to

the surface area of the body, men appeared

to have relatively larger brains. Thus brain

size alone could not settle the question of sex

differences in intelligence.

Next, researchers turned to specific

areas of the brain that could be responsible

for higher levels of intellectual functioning.

which it occurs, the situations in which men

and women find themselves, and the people

with whom they interact. This is the social-

psychological perspective, which is empha-

sized throughout this book.

TAKE HOME POINTS

■ The experimenter can influence the outcome of a study

by the way it is designed and by the way the data are

collected, interpreted, and reported. This is one reason

that we are more confident in findings that have been

replicated by a number of researchers who have used

different methods and different measures.

■ Participants can influence the outcome of the study.

Especially when the behavior is public, demand char-

acteristics are likely to operate. Ensuring confidentiality

and disguising the nature of the research will minimize

demand characteristics.

■ Differences between men and women are less likely

to be found in the laboratory, where men and women

face equal conditions, than in the real world, where

they do not.

■ When finding that women and men differ on some out-

come, one must be careful to determine whether the

difference is due to sex, status, gender role, or some-

thing else.

History of the Psychology of Gender

In Chapter 1, I provided a very abstract defi-

nition of gender roles. Where did this con-

cept come from? What did it mean 100 years

ago, and what does it mean today? Is it bet-

ter to be masculine or feminine? Or does it

depend on whether you are male or female?

Here, I provide a brief review of the history

of the psychology of gender. I examine the

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