64 Chapter 2
difficulties with assertion, and uncertainty about how to
behave in traditionally masculine settings.
■ The nature of gender-role strain differs across race, eth-
nicity, and culture.
■ Gender-role strain among men includes homophobia,
competitiveness, emotional inhibition, aggression, and
a reluctance to seek help.
■ Gender-role strain among women, less studied, includes
fear of physical unattractiveness, fear of victimization,
TABLE 2.7 KEY FEATURES OF EACH HISTORICAL PERIOD
1894–1936 1936–1954 1954–1982 1982 to date
Themes Show men are
more intelligent
than women
Introduction of
gender-role
concept
Instrumental-
expressive
distinction
Masculine
personality =
agency
Feminine
personality =
communion
Gender-role = sex
differences
Sex-typing Gender roles are
multifaceted
Masculine/
feminine bipolar
Consider social
context
Homosexuality =
feminine
Role strain
Key figures Terman & Miles Terman & Miles
Franck & Rosen
Maccoby,
Parson & Bales,
Bem, Spence
Spence, Deaux &
Major, Pleck
Measures 456-Item Attitude
Interest Analysis
Survey
Bem Sex Role
Inventory
Male Role Norms
Inventory
Projective tests Personal Attributes
Questionnaire (and
Extended Version)
Conclusions No sex difference
in intelligence
Masculine men
and feminine
women are
healthy
Androgynous
healthy
Norms associated
with gender roles
are associated
with strain
Summary
In the first half of the chapter, the scientific
method that is used to study gender was
reviewed. The scientific method rests
on empiricism; it includes the collection
of data that are then used to make
statements, develop theories, and generate
hypotheses. The correlational method, the
experimental method, and field experiments
were presented. The advantage of the
experimental method is internal validity, and
the advantage of the correlational method is
external validity. The importance of random
selection and random assignment was
explained. I also described the differences
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