7 Antonio Vivaldi 7

his concerti are notable for their rhythmic drive and the
boldness of their themes, while the slow movements often
present the character of arias written for the solo
instrument.
Several of Vivaldi’s concerti have picturesque or allusive
titles. Four of them, the cycle of violin concerti entitled
The Four Seasons (Opus 8, no. 1–4), are programmatic in a
thoroughgoing fashion, with each concerto depicting a dif-
ferent season of the year, starting with spring. Vivaldi’s
effective representation of the sounds of nature inaugu-
rated a tradition to which works such as Ludwig van
Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony belong. Vivaldi also left more
than 90 sonatas, mainly for stringed instruments.

Vocal Music

More than 50 authentic sacred vocal compositions by
Vivaldi are extant. They range from short hymns for solo
voices to oratorios and elaborate psalm settings in several
movements for double choir and orchestra. He composed
some 50 operas (16 of which survived in their entirety) as
well as nearly 40 cantatas. Many of Vivaldi’s vocal works
exhibit a spiritual depth and a command of counterpoint
equal to the best of their time. Moreover, the mutual
independence of voices and instruments often anticipates
the later symphonic masses of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart.

George Frideric Handel

(b. Feb. 23, 1685, Halle, Brandenburg [Germany]—d. April 14, 1759,
London, Eng.)

A

German-born English composer of the late Baroque
era, George Frideric Handel—or, Georg Friedrich
Händel, as he was known for the first 30 years of his