NOTES TO PAGES 489–93ism, because the latter term is linked to Protestantism and to the reading of theological texts in
purely theological and not political terms. According to some, fundamentalism is a frequently used
misnomer that suggests the desire for a return to an authentic religion and neglects the fact that
Islamism and other current religiously inspired movements are modern and ‘‘far from merelyretro-
gradeorreactive’’ (Hent de Vries, ‘‘In Media Res: Global Religion, Public Spheres, and the Task of
Contemporary Comparative Religious Studies,’’ inReligion and Media, ed. Hent de Vries and Sam-
uel Weber [Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001], 6, paraphrasing Joel Beinin and Joe Stork,
Political Islam: Essays from the Middle East Report[Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997]).
Roy, by contrast, distinguishes between political Islam, which was prevalent in the 1970s and 1980s
and concentrated on the creation of an Islamic state, and what he calls ‘‘neo-fundamentalism’’ or
‘‘salafisme,’’ which is not aimed at the state but at purifying Islam of all cultural or ethnic relations
in order to internationalize and even globalize it.
- Roy,La Laı ̈cite ́face a`l’islam, 132.
- Roy’s criticism of the reified use of the concept of culture within multiculturalism is famil-
iar from the debates within multiculturalism discourse itself. Constructivists have made a critique
of the reified concept of culture supposedly underlying multiculturalism into a program for rede-
fining or even rejecting multiculturalism. See, e.g., Gerd Bauman,The Riddle of Multiculturalism:
Rethinking National, Ethnic, and Religious Identities(New York: Routledge, 1999). Critics who have
stressed the links between constructivist concepts of culture and a return to classic liberalism are,
e.g.: Talal Asad,Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam
(Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); Veit Bader, ‘‘Culture and Identity: Contest-
ing Constructivism,’’Ethnicities2, no. 1 (2001): 251–85 (in debate with Gerd Bauman); and Tariq
Modood, ‘‘Anti-Essentialism, Multiculturalism and the ‘Recognition’ of Religious Groups,’’The
Journal of Political Philosophy6, no. 4 (1998): 378–99. - Durkheim, however, also initiated a preliminary deconstruction of his own view by ‘‘socio-
logizing’’ Kantian transcendental morality into religious collective memory. In my bookStuck in a
Revolving Door: Secularism, Assimilation, and Democratic Pluralism(Amsterdam: Eigen Beheer,
2006), I trace how such a notion of strong secularization underpinned concepts of Jewish assimila-
tion surrounding the Dreyfus Affair and address the ambivalences of this ‘‘assimilation’’ as it ap-
pears in the work of Marcel Proust. - Veit Bader,Secularism or Democracy? Associational Governance of Religious Diversity
(forthcoming). - Such a critique of modernity’s conceptualizations of religion has been developed by
Charles Taylor in ‘‘Lichtung or Lebensform: Parallels between Heidegger and Wittgenstein,’’in his
Philosophical Arguments(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 61–78. - Ludwig Wittgenstein,Philosophische Untersuchungen(Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp,
1984), 344. - Bonnie Honig, ‘‘My Culture Made Me Do It,’’ inIs Multiculturalism Bad for Women?, ed.
Joshua Cohen, Matthew Howard, and Martha C. Nussbaum (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1999), 35–41. - See Birnbaum,The Idea of France.
- Petition inLe Monde, December 10, 2003; my emphasis.
- I would like to thank Veit Bader, Karin de Boer, Odile Verhaar, and Hent de Vries for
their inspiring critical comments on earlier versions of this article; Murat Aydemir, Mathilde Four-
nier, and Irena Rosenthal for our great conversations about scarves, pedagogy, feminism, and Re-
publican identities in general; Esther Peeren for her translations and careful corrections of the
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