existence highlights the need to be sceptical of the adage that “more is better” when it
comes to training regimes in sport and exercise.
Let us now consider the second psychological hazard associated with habitual physical
activity: the problem of “exercise dependence”. According to Hausenblas and Downs
(2002), such dependence refers to “a craving for leisure-time physical activity, resulting
in uncontrollable excessive exercise, that manifests in physiological (e.g.,
tolerance/withdrawal) and/or psychological (e.g., anxiety/depression) symptoms” (p. 90).
Other terms for this compulsive behavioural syndrome, which has been studied mainly in
runners, include “obligatory exercise”, “excessive exercise” and “exercise addiction” (see
detailed review by Hausenblas and Downs, 2002). The last-mentioned of these terms is
proposed on the basis that the obligatory exerciser may experience withdrawal symptoms
if s/he is deprived of the required physical activity. Despite such withdrawal symptoms,
exercise dependence has not yet been classified as an addiction by clinicians.
In general, people who exercise excessively tend to report such symptoms as mood
changes, restlessness, irritability, lack of appetite, insomnia and feelings of guilt if a
twenty-four- to thirty-six-hour duration passes by without vigorous physical activity
(Sachs, 1981). Support for the addictive nature of this compulsive exercise syndrome in
runners was provided by a study by Morgan (1979) who described eight case studies.
One index of the strength of this compulsion to exercise came from the fact that the
runners in Morgan’s (1979) study regarded this activity as being more important than
their jobs or than interacting with their spouses, children or friends. Furthermore, these
obligatory runners reported that they had sometimes exercised even when in pain and
when acting against the advice of their physicians. Despite such case studies of this
problem, several questions remain. For example, can people really become addicted to
aerobic exercise in the same way as they might become addicted to drugs? If so, what are
the symptoms of this problem? Are there any distinctive psychological factors (e.g.,
personality characteristics) that make exercisers vulnerable to this problem? In order to
answer these questions, we need to examine the research literature on exercise
dependence (which amounts to almost eighty published studies; Hausenblas and Downs,
2002).
To begin with, let us consider the nature and criteria of exercise dependence.
According to Hausenblas and Downs (2002), this construct refers to a multidimensional,
maladaptive pattern of physical activity which leads to clinically significant impairments
or distress in the exerciser. Precise diagnostic criteria include evidence of three or more
of the following seven features:
1 “tolerance” (i.e., either a need for significantly increased amounts of exercise to achieve
the desired effect or diminished effects with the same amount of exercise);
2 “withdrawal” (i.e., evidence of withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety or fatigue when
the person is deprived of exercise);
3 “intention effects” (i.e., exercise is often taken in greater amounts or for longer
durations than was intended);
4 “loss of control” (whereby unsuccessful efforts are made to reduce the amount of
exercise taken);
5 “time” (a large amount of time is taken up by the activity);
6 “conflict” (i.e., important occupational or social activities are given up because of
exercise) and
Does a healthy body always lead to a healthy mind? Exploring exercise psychology 227