musculoskeletal injury. Finally, it is reckoned to enhance athletic performance. But where
is the empirical evidence to support any of these three claims?
In a recent attempt to answer this question, Herbert and Gabriel (2002) conducted a
systematic review of the research literature on stretching. Results revealed that across
five relevant studies, there was no significant effect of
stretching before or after exercise on delayed-onset muscle soreness. Next, a review of
two studies conducted on army recruits indicated that stretching before undertaking
exercise does not yield useful reductions in the risk of incurring injury. However, the
authors acknowledged that this conclusion applies strictly to the military setting in which
the relevant data had been gathered. Unfortunately, little data exist on the effects of
stretching on the risk of injury in either recreational or competitive athletes. Indeed,
Kujala (2002) claimed that stretching “lacks scientific evidence” (p, 36), Surprisingly, no
empirical studies could be located on the issue of whether or not stretching improves
athletic performance. In summary, the work of Herbert and Gabriel (2002) highlights the
value of evidence-based research in attempting to disentangle the myths of the locker-
room from prescriptions based on sound empirical principles. As a consequence of the
above studies, sports scientists are beginning to evaluate the optimal time in which to
conduct stretching exercises. As a person’s body temperature tends to increase after
exercise, with concomitant enhanced extensibility of ligaments, tendons and muscles, it
may make more sense to stretch at this stage (Cottell, 2003). Of course, a key issue that
needs to be addressed in this field is the extent to which researchers are really comparing
“like with like” when evaluating stretching exercises across different sports. After all, the
static stretching displayed by a runner (where each muscle is held to the point of
resistance for a given duration) is different from a more dynamic method of stretching
that can be found in martial arts (e.g., where short, sharp kicks are practised before
combat).
Critical thinking questions
Can you think of any psychological reasons why pre-performance stretching may be
helpful to athletes? How could you persuade sports performers to stretch while “wanning
down” after they have competed?
A second possible explanation for the apparent increase of sports injuries among active
people is that at the elite level professional performers are pushing their bodies to the
limits of their abilities in pursuit of athletic success. This theory is supported anecdotally
by observation of injury trends in tennis and golf. For example, Bill Norris, the principal
trainer on the American Tennis Professionals’ tennis tour, observed recently that
problems of injury and burnout (see also Chapter 2) stem from a combination of the
“never-ending pursuit of achievement and the inability of coaches to understand that the
human body can only take so much for so long” (cited in Evans, 2002, p. 24).
Interestingly, a similar picture has emerged in golf of late. Thus players such as Tiger
Woods, David Duval, Ernie Els, Sergio Garcia and Davis Love III all suffered back
injuries in the 2001 season which curtailed their involvement in tournament play (Kelly,
2002). Unfortunately, it is difficult to test the claim that athletic injuries are increasing
because of the dearth of injury surveillance data from national sports organisations. What
Sport and exercise psychology: A critical introduction 248