Sport And Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction

motivation in sport and exercise, the present chapter will attempt to answer the following
questions. What exactly does the term “motivation” mean? What types of motivation
have been identified? What theoretical approaches have been used to explore this
construct? How can athletes increase their motivation? Finally, what factors motivate
people to participate in dangerous sports? In order to address these issues, the chapter is
organised as follows.
To begin with, the nature and types of motivation in athletes will be considered. The
second section of the chapter will present a brief overview of theoretical approaches to
this construct in sport psychology. Special consideration will be given here to two
influential cognitive models of motivational processes in athletes—achievement goal
theory and attribution theory. The third section will explore the theory and practice of
increasing motivation in athletes through goal-setting techniques. Next, I shall examine
the motivational factors which impel some people to take part in risky activities in sport
and exercise settings. Finally, some practical suggestions for possible research projects in
the psychology of motivation will be provided.

Nature and types of motivation

As the term “motivation” is derived from the Latin word movere (meaning “to move”;
Onions, 1996), it is concerned with those factors which initiate or energise behaviour.
Within sport and exercise psychology, motivational issues are implicated when “a person
undertakes a task at which he or she is evaluated or enters into competition with others,
or attempts to attain some standard of excellence” (Roberts, 2001, p. 6). Unfortunately, as
we have suggested already, the term motivation is plagued by a great deal of conceptual
confusion. To illustrate, Box 2.1 presents some persistent myths surrounding this
construct.

Box 2.1 Thinking critically about...popular understanding of

“motivation”

According to Roberts (2001), motivation is one of the most misunderstood constructs in
sport psychology for three main reasons. To begin with, it is often confused with arousal.
As he pointed out, however, athletes cannot be motivated simply by “psyching” them up
into a frenzy of adrenaline. If anything, arousal needs to be channelled in a specific
direction for motivation to occur (see also Chapter 3). The second myth about motivation
is that it can be enhanced through positive thinking. The assumption here is that if
athletes can imagine themselves holding up the winner’s trophy, their motivation will be
strengthened. Unfortunately, research on goal-setting shows that people’s objectives have
to be controllable and realistic to be effective. Finally, some coaches believe that
motivation is a genetically inherited characteristic—something that one either has or has
not got. Again, this view is contradicted by research evidence which shows that
motivation can be changed through appropriate instruction (see later in chapter). Given
these popular misconceptions, is it any wonder that sport psychologists have to be careful
when using the term motivation? After all as Roberts (2001) concluded;“it is defined so

Sport and exercise psychology: A critical introduction 36