Types of goalsThree main types of goals have been identified in sport and exercise psychology research
(Weinberg, 2002). First, “outcome” or result goals are objective targets such as winning a
competition, defeating an opponent or achieving a desired finishing position (e.g.,
making the cut in a golf tournament). What is not often appreciated about such goals,
however, is the extent to which their achievement depends on the ability and performance
of one’s opponents. For example, a tennis player could play the best game of his or her
life but still lose a match because the opposing player has played better on the day. The
second type of objective encountered in sport is the “performance” goal. This goal
designates the attainment of a personal standard of competence with regard to technique
(e.g., learning to hit a top-spin backhand in tennis), effort (e.g., “giving 100 per cent
effort at all times in a match”), time (running a marathon in less than four hours) distance
and/or height (in certain athletic events). Unlike its predecessor, the characteristic feature
of performance goals is that they are largely under the control of the performer. For
example, a golfer could set as her performance goal the task of putting to within 30 cm of
the hole every time she is on the green. Nobody can stop the player from achieving this
level of accuracy because putting is a self-paced skill. The third type of target studied in
sport psychology is the “process” goal—or a behavioural strategy by which an athlete
executes a particular skill. For example, in golf, a process goal in putting might be to
keep one’s head steady while taking a slow backswing.
As they can be controlled directly, performance and process goals are usually regarded
as being more motivational for athletes than are result goals. For example, Weinberg
(2002) exhorted people “to set goals that are based on their own levels of performance
rather than on the outcome of winning and losing” (p. 38). Likewise, Orlick (1986)
proclaimed that “day-to-day goals for training and for competition should focus on the
means by which you can draw out your own potential. Daily goals should be aimed at the
improvement of personal control over your performance, yourself, and the obstacles you
face” (p. 10). In a similar vein, Gould (1998) proposed that athletes should “set process
and performance goals as opposed to outcome goals” (p. 187) and Hodge and McKenzie
(1999) advised athletes to “set performance goals rather than outcome goals” (p. 31).
Unfortunately, this emphasis on performance goals is not completely supported by
research findings. For example, a quantitative literature review by Kyllo and Landers
(1995) found that performance goals were no more effective than result goals in
enhancing skills. But why exactly should goals motivate athletes and improve their
performance?
Why should goals enhance performance?Goal-setting is believed to affect athletic performance in at least five ways (Locke and
Latham, 2002; Weinberg, 2002). First, goals serve to focus and direct attention towards
relevant actions. For example, if an athlete is told that unless she becomes fitter she will
be dropped from a basketball team, she may not know what action to take. But if she is
advised to improve her performance on a specific index of fitness such as the “bleep test”
by a certain date, then she is clearer about what is expected of her. Likewise, a tennis
player who tries to achieve at least 70 per cent accuracy on his first serve should be less
distractible on court than a player who has no objective for the match. Second, goals help
Motivation and goal-setting in sport 53