Sport And Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction

Box 2.6 Thinking critically about...research on goal-setting in sport

Sport psychology is replete with claims about the value of goal-setting as a performance-
enhancement strategy in sport. Thus Hall and Kerr (2001) asserted that “not only is the
efficacy of goal setting assumed; it is also claimed that the technique is a fundamental
psychological skill that all athletes must develop if they are to maximize athletic
potential” (p. 183). But are these claims warranted by available evidence? How well do
the goal-setting principles emerging from organisational settings apply to the world of
sport? Although Locke (1991) claimed that goal-setting effects in sport are similar to
those in business, Weinberg, Bruya and Jackson (1985) argued that there are significant
differences between these two spheres. For example, Kremer and Scully (1994)

observed that the extrinsic rewards arising from the world of work “stand in contrast to
the intrinsic motivators which have been identified as being so crucial to maintaining an
interest in amateur sportf” (p, 145), Other problems in this field come from the following
methodological flaws in research on goal-setting (see Burton et al, 2001, and Burton and
Naylor, 2002):
i Possible “ceiling effects”
There is evidence that the goal effectiveness curve flattens out or reaches a ceiling as
people approach the limits of their ability. In other words, ability factors restrict the
amount of improvement that can be made through goal-setting,
ii Complexity of task or skill
Goal-setting effects may not be noticeable when the tasks used to assess them require
complex skills. In fact, research indicates that as tasks become more complex, athletes
must learn to adopt strategic plans to extract maximum benefit from goal-setting practices
(Hall and Kerr, 2001).
iii Individual differences
The relationship between goal-setting and performance may be moderated by strategic
factors, Thus Burton et al. (2001) claimed that such factors as self-efficacy can affect the
impact of goal-setting practices on skilled performance.
iv Spontaneous goal-setting in control group
In the typical experimental paradigm used to study goal-setting effects (see earlier in
chapter), it is difficult to ensure that participants in control groups do not set goals
spontaneously for themselves. Indeed, there is evidence (Weinberg et al, 1985) that over
80 per cent of participants in a “no goal” control group admitted later that they had set
goals for themselves.

Critical thinking questions
What are the similarities and differences between goal-setting processes in business
and sport? What factors could account for the tendency for goal-setting to be less
effective in sport than in business contexts? In sport, is it possible to eliminate the
possibility of spontaneous goal-setting among people in control groups? Why do you
think so few studies on goal-setting have used athletes studied in field settings?

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