their own emotional experiences? Can reversal theory help to explain why athletes may
switch from perceiving anxiety as facilitative to perceiving it as debilitative of their
performance (see Hudson and Walker, 2002)?
Despite the issues raised in Box 3.3, several studies have supported the validity of the
DM-CSAI-2. For example, G.Jones et al. (1994) discovered that elite swimmers reported
that they had interpreted cognitive and somatic anxiety as being more facilitative of their
performance than did their less successful counterparts. Not surprisingly, a significant
proportion of the non-elite swimmers reported anxiety as being debilitative to their
performance. Before we conclude this section, it should be noted that concern has been
expressed recently about the psychometric adequacy of the CSAI-2. Briefly, Craft,
Magyar, Becker and Feltz (2003) conducted a recent meta-analysis of the association
between this test and athletic performance. Unfortunately, relationships between the three
sub-scales (cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence) and sport
performance were generally weak—thereby raising doubts about the construct validity of
the CSAI-2. Let us now consider in more detail the issue of how anxiety affects athletic
performance.
Arousal/ anxiety and athletic performanceAt the beginning of this chapter, we suggested that the ability to regulate one’s arousal
level is a vital determinant of success in sport. Endorsing this principle, many athletes
and coaches have developed informal methods of either energising themselves or
lowering their arousal levels before important competitions. For example, athletes who
are involved in sports which require strength and power (e.g., wrestling and
weightlifting) and/or physical contact (e.g., soccer, rugby) tend to favour “psych up”
strategies such as listening to inspirational music in the hours or minutes before the
competition begins. According to Dr Neil Todd (cited in Tyldesley, 2003), rhythm is “a
key element of psyching people up... It can provide a mental edge” (p. S3). Apparently,
the song used most frequently by Premiership soccer players during the 2002–2003
season was “Lose Yourself” by Eminem (ibid.). Of course, music is not the only “psych
up” strategy used in sport (see Zaichkowsky and Baltzell, 2001). Thus some coaches
believe that if players are taunted or made angry before they compete, their performance
will be improved. For example, Laurent Seigne, the French rugby coach, is reported to
have punched members of his team, Brive, before a match in order to psych them up
appropriately (S.Jones, 1997)! As yet, however, this theory has not been tested
empirically in sport psychology—and ethical prohibitions make this possibility unlikely
if not impossible! Arousal regulation strategies are also used in precision sports such as
golf, snooker and archery where performers need to calm down in order to play well. For
example, the American archer Darrell Pace, twice an Olympic gold medal-winner,
extolled the benefits of a controlled breathing technique as a preparation strategy before
competitions. In this breathing technique, Pace synchronised the pattern of his inhalations
and exhalations with covert repetition of the word “relax” (Vealey and Walter, 1994).
"Psyching up" and "calming down": anxiety in sport 79