The conflict needs to be addressed or it will
continue to escalate. Yet, in contrast to
Western societies that have completely
eradicated entire species that were much
less intrusive and destructive than ele-
phants, many Asian cultures, even bearing
the burden of high levels of personal and
economic threat and devastation, still man-
age to demonstrate a high level of tolerance
to the pachyderms’ frequent raids.
On this point, Arun Venkataraman attributes
much of the success of wildlife conservation
in a heavily populated India to the peoples’
cultural belief in and propensity for coexis-
tence. Of the situation near Bhadra Wildlife
Sanctuary (Project Tiger Reserve) in
Karnataka, he writes that “when crop raid-
ing [by elephants] occurred, it was well tol-
erated by local communities who were
largely caste Hindu cultivators. When asked
about the problem, local inhabitants were
under unanimous opinion that elephants
had an equal right to their lands.”^9 He adds
that pad marks from elephants in cultivated
fields were actually venerated and ele-
phants’ visits were considered good omens.
Birds in Borneo: pests or resources?
In Borneo, the most powerful god of the
Iban people is a sun-bird god called
Singalang Burong. Singalang Burong some-
times appears before humans as a
Brahminy kite. “As just another bird, the
Brahminy kite angers villagers by stealing
chickens, but when it assumes its identity
as bird-god the Brahminy kite takes on
much greater significance as the bringer of
omens of war” and thus its presence is
treated with respect that extends well
beyond tolerance.^10
Nearby in the highlands, the people of the
Kelabit tribe interpret crop raiding by the
many migratory bird species in a much
broader way than simply as a nuisance. In
fact, the birds’ migratory behavior is an
appreciated omen to people about the rice-
planting cycle and the certainty of a har-
vest. The birds’ arrival is determined by cli-
matic qualities that signify much more accu-
rately than a set calendar the change of
seasons and the best time to initiate various
agricultural practices. Four particular species
have been determined by the Kelabit to be
the most reliable timing indicators for their
needs. The birds’ arrival also gives some
peace of mind to farmers, who live in an
uncertain world marked by frequent
famines. Interestingly, when the Kelabit
were convinced one season to alter the type
of rice they would plant so as to improve
crop yields, their new rice crop grew
superbly, but could not be harvested before
the migratory birds arrived, and thus their
crops were lost to the birds. Instead of
blaming and retaliating against the birds for
their devastating and costly crop-raiding,
the Kelabit people saw this event as an
omen from the birds about the importance
of using rice types that matured and could
be harvested in a timely fashion.^11
Conceivably, an alternative world view might
have resulted in the community investing in
toxic chemicals to rid themselves of these
destructive birds.Shona reverence for wildlife
In another example, a small community of
Shona people living in the Kagora region of
rural Zimbabwe exemplifies how traditional
cultural beliefs promote coexistence
between humans and wildlife. The Shona
ethic includes a respect for and a moral atti-
tude toward nature, as well as restraint in
resource exploitation. Building on this ethic,
the Shona have totems which are all con-
nected to wild animals. In Shona society a
person has a special connection with a
totem animal. The totem animal is not killed
or eaten and thus species like leopards,
lions, python, hyena, wild pig, and porcu-
pines are protected and revered by those
who have them as their totem animals.
Further, baboons are tolerated more in
Kagora than in many other areas in Africa,