laws, and end to poaching and trade in
wildlife products.
The strict defence of protected areas was,
however, a conservation solution that in
turn created its own problems. Debate
about the question of the role of people in
parks, and the effects of parks on people,
began in the 1970s as part of a wider
debate about “community conservation”, or
“community-based conservation”.^43
UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve concept
made provision for human use of buffer
zones, while in 1975, IUCN passed the
Zaire Resolution on the Protection of
Traditional Ways of Life, calling on govern-
ments not to displace people from protect-
ed areas and to take specific account of
the needs of indigenous populations, and
in the same year the UNESCO World
Heritage Convention made specific provi-
sion for the conservation of areas of his-
torical and cultural significance.^44 The prin-
ciples of community-oriented park man-
agement were discussed at the World
Parks Congress in Bali in 1982, and devel-
oped at Caracas in 1992 and Durban in
- Following the Caracas Congress in
1992, IUCN published a policy on
Indigenous and Traditional Peoples
and Protected Areas.
There were also changes in the
way individual countries dealt with
people and conservation. Thus in
Canada and Australia there were
significant changes in attitudes to
indigenous land rights.^45 Most
Canadian national parks were des-
ignated before the federal and
provincial governments acknowl-
edged the existence of Aboriginal
right and title.^46 Attitudes began
to shift in the 1970s, in response
to rising Aboriginal political aware-
ness, and to the ground-breaking
Berger inquiry into the Mackenzie
Delta oil pipeline, and then the
Inuvialuit Final Agreement in 1984. In
1972, the Canadian Parks Service intro-
duced the idea of National Park reserves,
to be treated as national parks pending
the completion of land claims. In East
Africa, experience at Amboseli National
Park through the 1970s, subsequently
developed into the Wildlife Extension
Project, experience from which in turn led
to the establishment of the African Wildlife
Foundation’s Tsavo Community
Conservation Project (1988), the Kenyan
Wildlife Service Community Wildlife
Programme and the USAID-funded COBRA
project (Conservation of Biodiverse Areas),
in 1991, and the African Wildlife
Foundation’s “Neighbours as Partners”
Programme.^47Alongside the reconsideration of the role of
people in protected areas has gone a
renewed interest in conservation in terms
of “sustainable use”. This phrase includes
three separate ideas: the fact that wildlife
use is an imperative or choice of people
(particularly the poor) in the pursuit of
their livelihoods; the issue of how popula-
tions and ecosystems are to be used andConservation aas ccultural aand ppolitical ppractice
Figure 4.The creation of micro-enterprises based on harvested
wild species (such as these wood tourist carvings) offers impor-
tant opportunities for new livelihoods, but raises key questions
about the sustainability of harvests. (Courtesy Juan Moreias).