land, had the right to ask his people to assume staggering
burdens of labor. This privilege of the Egyptian ruler has
been viewed both as a form of slavery and as a unique
method of civil responsibility. The corvée was not slavery,
although that particular system was formally introduced
into Egypt in the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.).
The massive constructions along the Nile were possible
only because of the seasonal enlistment of the Egyptian
people.
Vast armies of workers left their fields and orchards
and took up their construction tasks with enthusiasm
because of the spiritual rewards of their labors, especially
at royal mortuary sites. Each man called to the scene of
royal projects worked his allotted hours and went home
carrying beer and bread. Work was seasonal and carried
out in shifts, depending upon the Nile’s inundations and
the readiness of the land for sowing or harvesting. Elabo-
rate camps were established on the sites of building pro-
jects, and entertainment and medical care were provided
for the workers during rest periods. Women were also
drafted to aid in some large projects. They cooked, cared
for the sick, wove clothes, and aided the workers. In
return they were sent home with ample supplies and
honor. The corvée was possible only in times of dynastic
strength and stable government. When a dynasty failed,
as in the First (2134–2040 B.C.E.) and Second
(1640–1550 B.C.E.) Intermediate Periods, volunteer labor
was not only impractical but impossible.
cosmetics These were the beautifying materials of
ancient Egypt. From the earliest times Egyptian women
employed creams and powders to brighten or color their
faces. They were particularly concerned with mascara,
which was used to recreate the sacred EYE OF RÉsymbol on
their own eyes, at once both a religious and a fashion
statement. This mascara was made of malachite, or copper
ore, used in the Early Dynastic Period (2920–2575 B.C.E.)
and probably used for the same purpose in the Predynastic
Age (before 3000 B.C.E.). During the Old and Middle King-
dom (2575–2134 B.C.E. and 2040–1640 B.C.E.) galena was
used as mascara, and then a form of kohl (like the modern
cosmetic) was popular. Mascara was either imported or
obtained from a natural source near KOPTOS. Various red
pigments were used to adorn the face, mostly ochres and
natural dyes. Scents from cedar and sandalwood, barks,
flowers, and plants were fashionable, and perfumes were
composed of rarefied fats and alcohol or oils.
Most royal or noble women took care not to allow
the sun to darken their faces, and in funerary paintings
they were depicted as fair-skinned. The cosmetics of the
women were kept in beautifully carved boxes, or in
chests made out of ivory or other precious materials.
Spoons, palettes for grinding powders, brushes for mas-
cara, and small tubes for ointments to adorn the lips have
been found, as well as combs, mirrors, and various trin-
kets for wigs and hair.cosmogony This was the body of creation traditions of
Egypt, legends that assumed political and religious signif-
icance in each new age of the nation. The number and
variety of these myths provide insight into the develop-
ment of Egyptian spiritual values and clearly delineate
the evolution of certain divine cults.
To begin with, the ancient people of the Nile did not
concern themselves with doctrinal or theological purity
and precision, but they did adhere to a logical progres-
sion in matters of religious significance. Spiritual con-
sciousness and a harmonious unity, both in the individual
and in the nation, were elements that kept Egyptians
secure and stable. Their religious aspirations were cultic
in nature, dependent upon ritual and celebration, upon
renewed manifestations of ideals and values. Dogmas or
doctrines did not concern the common individuals
specifically. In fact, the Egyptians were uncomfortable
with spiritual concepts that demanded complex logical
and reasonable development. It was enough for them to
see the deity, to hear his or her concerns for the land, and
to mirror the cosmic harmony that their astronomical
abilities had gleaned for them in the sky.
There were basic systems of creation theology in all
times of Egypt’s development. They were found at
HELIOPOLIS,HERMOPOLIS MAGNA,MEMPHIS, and THEBES.
Other local temples provided their own cosmogonic
information, but the four major ones provided the frame-
work for spiritual evolution in Egypt.
The basic tenets of these cosmological systems were
twofold: (1) the universe was once a primordial ocean88 cosmeticsThe Great Pyramid stands at Giza
labors by thousands of Egyptians who answered pharaoh’s
demand for corvée, his right to ask for their unending toil on
behalf of his mortuary site. (Courtesy Thierry Ailleret.)