layers of effluvium and silt. There was continued mois-
ture, gentle winds, and a vastness that encouraged agri-
culture.
Upper Egypt, the territory south of Itj-tawy to the first
cataract of the Nile at Aswan, was called Ta-resu. It is pos-
sible that the southern border of Egypt was originally
north of Aswan, as the rulers of the First Dynasty added
territory to the nation. It is also possible that Upper Egypt
included some lands south of Aswan in predynastic times.
The Nile Valley dominated Upper Egypt, which had
sandstone cliffs and massive outcroppings of granite.
These cliffs marched alongside the Nile, sometimes set
back from the shore and sometimes coming close to the
river’s edge. There were river terraces, however, and areas
of continued moisture, as the remains of trees and vegeta-
tion indicate that the region was once less arid. The origi-
nal settlers of the region started their sites on the edges of
the desert to secure themselves from the floods.
There were probably rudimentary forms of provincial
government in Upper Egypt as well, specific multifamily
groups that had consolidated their holdings. Totems of
some of these groups or provincial units are evident in
the unification documentation. The NOMES, or provinces,
were established originally by the rulers of the first
dynasties or perhaps were in existence in earlier eras. It is
probable that Upper Egypt was advanced in that regard.
HISTORICAL PERIODSBecause of its geographical position on the African conti-
nent, and because of its relative isolation, Egypt devel-
oped in a unique fashion. The natural defenses of the
cataracts of the Nile and the eastern and western deserts
kept the land comparatively free of foreign domination in
the early stages of growth and confederation. The Nile
was the primary factor in this development, as the region
offered no other rivers and little rainfall. The annual
inundation provided a bountiful agricultural economy
and also prompted a remarkable sense of cooperation
among the Egyptians. This spirit illuminated much of
their religious and political thinking and left an imprint
on their lives and on their future.
PREDYNASTIC PERIODThis was the era in which hunters and gatherers aban-
doned the heights and plateaus to enter the lush Valley of
the Nile, discovering safety there and a certain abundance
that induced them to begin settlements. These first settle-
ments were not uniform throughout Egypt, and a list of
Predynastic cultural sequences has been developed to
trace the development of cultural achievements in Upper
and Lower Egypt.
Evolution and development took place in the Nile
Valley as early as c. 120,000 B.C.E. The Achulean culture
appeared in the region, extending their range until c.
90,000 B.C.E.Homo erectusgave way to Homo sapiensc.
100,000 B.C.E., and the Mousterian culture was evident
by c. 50,000 B.C.E. The last periods of the Achulean cul-
ture in Egypt were marked by the development of tech-
nological advances, including the use of flake tools.
The Asterian culture, associated with the Mousterian,
used bows and arrows and was widespread in Maghreb
and in the southern SAHARA. The Khormoussan culture,
named for the Khor Musa, near WADI HALFA, appeared c.
45,000 B.C.E. The Khormoussans were encamped in river
valleys, following wild herds and abandoning the deserts.
From c. 15,000 to 10,000 B.C.E., the Qadan phase
moved to the Neolithic stage of development at ELKAB,
Wadi Halfa, and in the FAIYUM. Other settlements started
at Deir el-BADARI, Deir Tasa, MERIMDA BENI SALAMA, and
el-OMARInear HALWAN. These settlements had improved
weapons and used agricultural plots alongside the usual
hunting and fishing routines. Pottery and baskets appear,
as well as the use of necropolises, or burial sites, and
funerary practices.
The Naqada III, or Gerzean B, cultures were in place
in the Nile Valley alongside the Ma’adi, or so-called
“Dynasty O,” cultures by 3500 B.C.E. Regional kingdoms
had been established, and slate palettes were in use. The
sites from this evolutionary phase are at Kom Tennis, El-
Beda, Manshiya Abu OMARI, Tell el-Dab, Khufu, Nigm,
Beni Anir, HELIOPOLIS, El-Qabta, ABU ROWASH, GIZA,
ZAWIYET EL-ARYAN, SAQQARA, ABUSIR, TUREH, MEMPHIS,
HALWAN, El-Ragagna, BEIT KHALLAF,DENDEREH,EL-TARIF,
Nag el-Mamariya, WADI ABBAD,ELEPHANTINEIsland, Tell
el-Ginn, Tell el-Samara, Kom el-Kanatero, Tell el-Farain,
Dimai, KOM MEDINET GHUROB, and DAMANHUR.
The Neolithic cultures of the Badarian, Tassan, and
Faiyum A and B, 5540 B.C.E., were at Badari, Hemania,
Merimda Beni Salami, and in the Faiyum. These were fol-
lowed by the Faiyum A and B cultures, the Naqada I, or
Amratian, including the Omari A or Halwan, and the Fas-
san cultures appeared at Naqada, with a phase at el-
’Amra. A dual ceramic development took place, with the
use of theriomorphic vessels. Copper was being used
along with mined gold and tin, discovered in the Eastern
Desert. QUARRIESwere started, and the flint was common.
The first historical architectural forms appear in this age,
and towns were planned and erected.
The main settlements of Naqada I (c. 3600 B.C.E.),
also called the Amratian cultural evolution, were at ABY-
DOS,ERMENT,ELKAB, Kom el-Amra, GEBELEIN, Khizan,
NAQADA,QUS,KOPTOS, Nag el-Goziriya, el-Mahaina, Naga
el-Deir, Meraid, and Qaw Elkabir. In the same era settle-
ments were also in the Faiyum, and at el-Saff, HELIOPOLIS
(now a suburb of modern Cairo), Dimai, Tureh, Wadi
Digla, Giza,MA’ADI, and Kom Medinet Ghurob.
The Naqada II, or Gerzean, Period began c. 4000
B.C.E., along with the Omari B culture. Settlements at el-
GERZEand elsewhere display ceramic changes in this
development, with style, motifs, and the use of natural
images emerging. Boats were in use, and standards
were adopted as clan or regional totems. Palettes wereEgypt 117