cation and artistry, with semicircular bowls dominating
the styles. Vessels used for daily life were smooth or
rough brown. The quality pottery was thinner than any
other forms manufactured in predynastic times, combed
and burnished before firing. Polished red or black, the
most unique type was a pottery painted red with a black
interior and a lip formed while the vessel was cooling.
Naqada I (AMRATIAN) (4000–3500 B.C.E.) was located
from Deir Tasa to Nubia, including Hierakonpolis and
Naqada, with a large concentration of sites evident
between Naqada and Abydos. The people of this se-
quence erected oval huts (a type used in Naqada II as
well), containing hearths, and that were wattled and
daubed. There were no windows evident, but these could
have been placed in the upper levels. Windbreaks and
cooking pots were also found.
The tools of the people were bifacial flint knives with
cutting edges and rhombodial knives. Basalt vases were
found, along with mace heads, slate palettes, and ivory
carvings. Ritual figures, depicting animals and humans,
were carved out of ivory or molded in clay. A black-
topped pottery gave way to red wares in this sequence,
some with white cross designs or scenes. Metal was very
rare.
Naqada II (Gerzean) (3500–3000 B.C.E.) was a cul-
tural sequence that left sites from the Delta to the Nubian
border, with most of the habitation centers located south
of Abydos. This sequence is marked by the changes
brought about in contacts with other peoples and other
lands. The period also indicates growing institutions and
traditions.
Accelerated trade brought advances in the artistic
skills of the people of this era, and Palestinian influences
are evident in the pottery, which began to include tilted
spouts and handles. A light-colored pottery emerged in
Naqada II, composed of clay and calcium carbonate.
Originally the vessels had red patterns, changing to
scenes of animals, boats, trees, and herds later on. It is
probable that such pottery was mass-produced at certain
settlements for trading purposes. Copper was evident in
weapons and in jewelry, and the people of this sequence
used gold foil and silver. Flint blades were sophisticated,
and beads and amulets were made out of metals and lapis
lazuli.
Funerary pottery indicates advanced mortuary cults,
and brick houses formed settlements. These small single-
chambered residences had their own enclosed courtyards.
A temple was erected at Hierakonpolis with battered
walls. Graves erected in this period were also lined with
wooden planks and contained small niches for offerings.
Some were built with plastered walls, which were
painted.
The cultural sequences discussed above were particu-
lar aspects of a growing civilization along the Nile,
prompted to cooperate with one another by that great
waterway. The Nile, the most vital factor in the lives of
the Egyptians, was not always bountiful. It could be a
raging source of destruction if allowed to surge uncon-
trolled. Irrigation projects and diverting projects were
necessary to tame the river and to provide water through-
out the agricultural seasons. The river, its bounty, and the
rich soil it deposited gave birth to a nation.
Sometime in the late part of the predynastic era,
attempts were made by leaders from Upper Egypt to con-
quer the northern territories. Upper Egypt probably was
united by that time, but Lower Egypt’s political condition
is not known for certain. Men such as SCORPIONand
NARMER have been documented, but their individual
efforts and their successes have not been determined.
There was, however, a renaissance of the arts, a force that
would come to flower in the Early Dynastic Period (also
called the Archaic Period).
THE EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (ARCHAIC)
2920–2575 B.C.E.
The era of the founding of the Egyptian state and the
start of its ruling dynasties was dynamic and prolonged.
The First Dynasty, begun at Memphis by AHA(Menes),
was marked by significant cultural achievements. He
cemented his claims to the throne by marrying a Mem-
phite heiress and by instituting or reinforcing the previ-
ous modes of governmental and religious traditions that
would become unique aspects of Egypt’s heritage.
PAPYRUS, writing, and a CALENDARwere in use, and linear
measurements, mathematics, and ASTRONOMYwere prac-
ticed. A census, tax assessments, the reestablishment of
boundaries after the yearly Nile inundations, and the
development of new astronomical instruments moved the
nation to new heights. The rulers of the Early Dynastic
Period raided Libya and the SINAIand began the exploita-
tion of natural resources so vital to Egypt. Some punitive
expeditions were conducted in Nubia, as well as the
annexation of land around Aswan.
It cannot be verified that the first rulers of this period
accomplished the actual unification of Egypt. They ruled
portions of the land and tried to gain control of the
nomes or provinces that were still independent. Regions
such as the northeastern Delta remained outside of their
domination for a long period, as did other territories. It is
assumed that the reign of KHA’SEKHEMWY, the last king of
the Second Dynasty (c. 2649 B.C.E), witnessed the cohe-
sion of the southern and northern regions, and the con-
federation of Upper and Lower Egypt was completed.
Kha’sekhemwy also started a settlement at BUHEN in
Nubia. Religious texts permeated Egyptian society during
this period, and elaborate tomb complexes based upon
religious beliefs were constructed by the rulers, who also
built secondary tombs, called CENOTAPHS. Egypt was gov-
erned firmly by these pharaohs, with the aid of nome offi-
cials and dedicated administrators.
Art and architecture, especially the forms associated
with mortuary rituals, showed an increased degree ofEgypt 119