Yusef. In certain times of the year, corresponding to the
modern month of January, the sluices were closed to
drain the area and to clear the waterways and bridges.
Dominating the site is a pyramidal complex erected
by SENWOSRET II(r. 1897–1878 B.C.E.). Made out of mud
brick, the pyramid was erected on a rocky outcropping
and had a stone casing. The MORTUARY TEMPLEof the com-
plex was covered by red granite, and the surfaces were
decorated with inscriptions. The burial chamber was lined
with red granite slabs and contained a red granite SAR-
COPHAGUS. A subsidiary pyramid was erected nearby,
enclosed within the main wall. Papyri from the period
were discovered there, as well as medical instruments.
Lake of Fire This was a mysterious Underworld site
designated in the mortuary relief called the Book of Gates.
This text appears for the first time in the tomb of
HOREMHAB(r. 1319–1307 B.C.E.). The Lake of Fire was
located in “the Sacred Cavern of Sokar” and was the ulti-
mate destination of damned souls. No one returned from
the Lake of Fire, which burned in a sunless region.
Lake of Flowers The poetic name for one of the eter-
nal realms of paradise awaiting the Egyptians beyond the
grave, the site contained all the elements deemed invit-
ing, such as fresh water, cool winds, and flowers. The
Egyptians, surrounded by deserts in all eras, were quite
precise about the necessary aspects of AMENTI, the joyful
existence prepared for the dead in the west. Other desig-
nations provided similar attributes and were called the
LILY LAKEand the Fields of Food.
lakes These were the water sources of Egypt beyond
the boundaries of the Nile, part of the geographical com-
position of the Nile Valley. The scant rainfall, especially
in Upper Egypt, made the land arid and devoid of any
lake. The Delta and the FAIYUMareas of Lower Egypt,
however, were graced with seven lakes in ancient times.
They were QURUN(Birkat el-Qurun), NATRON, Manzilah,
EDKU, Abukir, MAREOTIS, and Barullus. SIWAOasis in the
LIBYANor Western DESERTwas graced by Lake Zeytun.
Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys This is an ancient
hieratic document from around 500 B.C.E. that was part
of the Osirian cult. ISISand NEPHTHYSwept over OSIRIS
after he was slain by the god SET. The two goddesses also
proclaimed Osiris’s resurrection from the dead and his
ascension into heaven. During the Late Period (712–332
B.C.E.), Osirian dramas were revived, and elaborate cere-
monies were staged with the Lamentationsas part of the
rituals. Both the goddesses Isis and Nephthys were por-
trayed by priestesses during the ceremonies in which the
hymn was sung, or the Songs,as they were also called,
were read by a priest. These ceremonies were celebrated
in the fourth month of the year, approximately December
21 on the modern calendar. The Lamentationswere also
called the Festival Songs of the Two Weepers.In time, the
Lamentationswere added to versions of the BOOK OF THE
DEAD.Land of the Bow This was a region of NUBIA(modern
Sudan) controlled by Egypt from the Early Dynastic
Period (2920–2575 B.C.E.) until the end of the New King-
dom (1070 B.C.E.). The area below the first cataract, also
called WAWAT, attracted the Egyptians because of the local
natural resources and the advantageous trade routes.
Associated with the concept of the NINE BOWS, the Land
of the Bow was displayed in carvings on royal standards.
Other lands of the east assumed that title in certain
reigns. In some periods the Nine Bows were depicted on
the inside of the pharaoh’s shoes, so that he could tread
on them in his daily rounds.language The oral and written systems of communica-
tion of ancient Egypt were once thought to have been a
late development on the Nile but are now recognized as
an evolving cultural process that is contemporaneous
with, if not earlier than, the Sumerian advances. The clay
tablets discovered recently in the tomb of an obscure
ruler, SCORPION, at Gebel Tjauti, date to between 3700
B.C.E. and 3200 B.C.E., thus marking Egypt’s use of a writ-
ten language at an earlier historical date not recognized
previously. The hieroglyphs inscribed on the tablets were
used in varied forms throughout Egypt’s history, the last
known display being inscribed at PHILAE, dated 394 B.C.E.
The introduction of hieroglyphs was one of the most
important developments in Egypt, as a tradition of liter-
acy and recorded knowledge was thus begun. Not every-
one in Egypt was literate, of course, but standards of
education were set and maintained as a result, norms
observed through the centuries by the vast armies of offi-
cial scribes. In the beginning, the use of hieroglyphs was
confined to a class of priests, and over the years the lan-
guage in the oral form grew sophisticated and evolved,
but the hieroglyphs remained comparatively traditional,
protected against inroads by the priestly castes that
trained the multitude of scribes. The hieroglyphs were
normally used for religious texts, hence the Greek name
hieroglyph (“sacred carvings”). The linguistic stages of
development are as follows:
Old Egyptianis the term used to designate the lan-
guage of the Early Dynastic Period (2920–2575 B.C.E.)
and the Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.). Extant texts
from this period are mostly official or religious, including
the PYRAMID TEXTS, royal decrees, tomb inscriptions, and
a few biographical documents.
Middle Egyptian, the linguistic form of the First
Intermediate Period (2134–2040 B.C.E.), was used
through the New Kingdom and later. This is classiclanguage 209