the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. Since that time, the
study of Egypt’s language has continued and evolved,
enabling scholars to reassess previously known materials
and to elaborate on the historical evidence concerning
the people of the Nile.
Suggested Readings:Adkins, Lesley, and Roy Adkins.
The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian
Hieroglyphs. New York: Harper Collins, 2000; Allen,
James P. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language
and Culture of Hieroglyphs.Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 2000; Bertro, Maria Carmelo. Hieroglyphics:
The Writings of Ancient Egypt.New York: Abbeville, 1996;
Scott, Henry Joseph, and Lenore Scott. Egyptian Hiero-
glyphics.London: Hippocrene, 1998.
Lansing Papyrus This is a document now in the
British Museum in London that appears to be related to
the school and scribal systems of Egypt. The text of the
papyrus praises scribes and extols the advantages of edu-
cation and learning.
lapis lazuli This is a semiprecious stone, a form of
limestone, blue mineral lazurite, preferred by Egyptians
over gold and silver. The stone, which could be opaque,
dark, or greenish blue, was sometimes flecked with gold
and was used in all eras, especially as amulets, small
sculptures, and scarabs. The Egyptian name for lapis
lazuli was khesbedj,representing vitality and youthful-
ness. Lapis lazuli originated in northeastern Afghanistan
and was imported into Egypt. The goddess HATHORwas
sometimes called the “Mistress of Lapis Lazuli.”
See also EGYPTIAN NATURAL RESOURCES.
lapwing See REKHET.
Lateran Obelisk This is a monument belonging to
TUTHMOSIS III(r. 1479–1425 B.C.E.) that was carved but not
erected at KARNAK until the reign of TUTHMOSIS IV
(1401–1391 B.C.E.). Tuthmosis IV had the unattended
OBELISKraised and put in a place in the Karnak sacred
precincts. The monument carries an inscription that attests
to Tuthmosis IV’s filial piety in performing that deed. The
obelisk is now on display in the Vatican in Rome.
Layer Pyramid This is the modern name given to the
monument erected at ZAWIET EL-ARYANat GIZAby KHA’BA
(r. 2603–2599 B.C.E.).
Lay of the Harper This is an unusual text discovered
on tomb walls and other monuments of Egypt, reflecting
upon death. Containing pessimistic views contrary to the
accepted religious tenets concerning existence beyond
the grave, the Lay of the Harper is solemn and forebod-
ing. One version, found at THEBESand reportedly copied
from the tomb of INYOTEF V(r. c. 1640–1635 B.C.E.) of
the Seventeenth Dynasty, is also called the Harper’s Song.
This text doubts the existence of an eternal paradise and
encourages a hedonistic approach to earthly life that is
contrary to the normal Egyptian concept of MA’AT.legal system The extensive and comprehensive judi-
cial system developed in ancient Egypt as part of the
national and provincial forms of government. The people
of the NILEremained close-knit in their NOMEcommuni-
ties, even at the height of the empire, and they preferred
to have their court cases and grievances settled under
local jurisdiction. Each nome or province had a capital
city, dating to predynastic times. Lesser cities and towns
within the nome functioned as part of a whole. In each
town or village, however, there was a seru,a group of
elders whose purpose it was to provide legal opinions and
decisions on local events. The court, called the djatjatin
the Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.) and the KENBET
thereafter, made legal and binding decisions and meted
out the appropriate penalties. The kenbetwas a factor on
both the nome and high-court levels. This series of local
and national courts followed a well-understood tradition
of hearings and judgments.
Only during the periods of unrest or chaos, as in the
two Intermediate Periods (First, 2134–2040 B.C.E.; Sec-
ond, 1640–1550 B.C.E.), did such a custom prove disas-
trous. The popularity of the “ELOQUENT PEASANT,” the tale
of KHUNIANUPU, was due to the nation’s genuine desire to
have courts provide justice. Crimes involving capital
punishment or those of treason, however, were not
always within the jurisdiction of the local courts, and
even the Great kenbet,the supreme body of judgment,
could not always render the ultimate decision on such
matters.
The Great kenbets in the capitals were under the
supervision of the viziers of Egypt; in several periods there
were two such offices, a VIZIERfor Upper Egypt and
another for Lower Egypt. This custom commemorated the
unification of the nation in 3000 B.C.E. Petitions seeking
judicial aid or relief could be made to the lower courts,
and appeals of all lower court rulings could be made to
the Great kenbetby all citizens. Egyptians waited in line
each day to give the judges their testimony or their peti-
tions. The decisions concerning such matters were based
on traditional legal practices, although there must have
been written codes available for study. HOREMHAB (r.
1319–1307 B.C.E.), at the close of the Eighteenth Dynasty,
set down a series of edicts concerning the law. He appears
to be referring to past customs or documents in his
decrees concerning compliances and punishments.
No distinction was allowed in the hearing of cases.
Commoners and women were afforded normally the
same opportunities as aristocrats in the courts. The poorlegal system 2 11