with honey and herbs, perhaps to stem infection or to
ease pain. Some mummies were also provided with
bridges and gold teeth. It is not known if these dental
aids were used by the wearers while alive or were inserted
into the mouths of the deceased during the embalming
process.
The most common diseases afflicting Egyptians
included the illness caused by Shistosoma haematobia,a
parasitic worm still present in standing Nile waters,
resulting in Biharzia. Another parasitic infection was
caused by Dracunulus mediensis,found in Nile drinking
water. Lice caused a form of dermatitis, epidemics, and
fevers. Rats added to the spread of disease and were rec-
ognized as creatures that had to be controlled. A rat trap
from the early historical periods was discovered at
Kahun.
Smallpox epidemics appeared at times, including the
period of the Twentieth Dynasty (1196–1070 B.C.E.)
when the succession to the throne was imperiled by the
deadly toll of the disease. Tuberculosis was present in
both bovine and human forms. Pott’s Disease, spinal
tuberculosis (leading to humpbacks, emaciation, and
exhaustion), arteriosclerosis, scoliosis, and poliomyelitis
were known in Egypt as well. Two fetuses discovered in
the tomb of TUT’ANKHAMUN(r. 1333–1323 B.C.E.) also
depict spina bifida and Sprengel’s Disease. SIPTAH (r.
1204–1198 B.C.E.) had Talipses equinovarus, or “club
foot.” That condition was also recorded in the tombs of
the Middle Kingdom Period (2040–1640 B.C.E.).
Tumors were recognized as early as the Fifth Dynasty
(2465–2323 B.C.E.) and in the same historical period
Egyptians suffered from nasopharyngeal cancer. Hernias
were treated and Graves’ Disease was recorded on a statue
in the Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.) also. Rheumatoid
arthritis was also depicted in a Fifth Dynasty tomb. Lep-
rosy (Mycobacterium leprae) did not appear until the
Ptolemaic Period (304–30 B.C.E.). A Ptolemaic cemetery
at DAKHLAOasis contained lepers. Egyptians on average
suffered many diseases, including high blood pressure,
heart ailments, bronchitis, pneumonia, kidney stones,
abscesses, and gynecological problems.
The arrival of the Greeks in Egypt, and the subse-
quent occupation of the country under ALEXANDER III THE
GREAT(r. 332–323 B.C.E.) and the Ptolemies, brought
about changes in the medical studies and procedures, as
the Greek scientific approaches, especially the medical
advances proposed by Galen and other Greek physicians,
impacted upon the Egyptian practitioners, at least in
ALEXANDRIA and other major centers. Preserved texts
from the medical specialists of the Ptolemaic Period
(304–30 B.C.E.) include pleas for modernization of meth-
ods and the abandonment of the magical aspects of
medicine as practiced in prior generations. The Egyptians
adapted to the new concepts and improvements to some
extent, but they maintained their time-honored services
in the old ways at the same time.
When the Romans entered the Nile Valley, they
respected much of what they saw in the functioning med-
ical clinics and brought their own scientific systems into
play. Egypt was a prized provincial territory under
Emperor AUGUSTUS, after Octavian defeated CLEOPATRA VII
and Marc ANTONYin 30 B.C.E. The Egyptians accepted the
changes and continued honoring the past.
The pharmaceutical resources of the ancient Egyp-
tian priest-physicians included antacids, copper salts, tur-
pentine, alum, astringents, alkaline laxatives, diuretics,
sedatives, antispasmodics, calcium carbonates, and mag-
nesia. They also employed many exotic herbs. The dis-
pensing of medicines was carefully stipulated in the
medical papyri, with explicit instructions as to the exact
dosage, the manner in which the medicine was to be
taken internally (as with food or wine), and external
applications. Some of the prescriptions contained strange
and exotic ingredients, and the dosage sometimes
included magical spells or incantations as accompanying
remedies. The medical documents that have provided
information on the medical practices include: the EBERS,
EDWIN SMITH, Chester BEATTYIV, and HEARST PAPYRI.Suggested Readings:Estes, J. Worth. The Medical Skills of
Egypt.New York: Watson Publishing International, 1993;
Nunn, John F. Ancient Egyptian Medicine.Norman: Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, 1996.Medinet el-Faiyum See CROCODILOPOLIS.Medinet Habu (Djemet) A site on the western shore
of the Nile at THEBES, once called Djemet, serving as a
necropolis and monument depository. HATSHEPSUT (r.
1473–1458 B.C.E.) and TUTHMOSIS III(1479–1425 B.C.E.)
erected a temple honoring the god AMUNat Medinet
Habu. The dominating monument, however, is a fortified
temple complex erected by RAMESSES III (1194–1163
B.C.E.), one of the most completely preserved shrines in
Egypt. This temple is surrounded by a wall, complete
with guardhouses and gateways, one fortified, and con-
taining Ramessid reliefs. Other scenes and icons incorpo-
rated into the temple are valuable historical texts of the
era.
Called a MIGDOL,or Syrian-style fortress, Ramesses
III’s monument at Medinet Habu depicts Egypt’s defeat of
the SEA PEOPLESof the time. A pylon and pavilion gate
open onto a courtyard with pillars. The royal residence
was attached to this enclosure, which leads to a second
court and a pillared complex containing a treasury and
sanctuaries for the barks of Ramesses III and the gods
Amun,KHONS(1), MONTU, and MUT. Two statues of the
goddess SEKHMETguard the entrance. There is also a WIN-
DOW OF APPEARANCEin this area, as well as a chapel hon-
oring the ENNEAD and chapels of the gods RÉ, PTAH,
SOKAR, and the deified Ramesses III. Other pylons andMedinet Habu 231