380 Sobekneferuguardians of the royal NILOMETERS. He was 66 years old
at the time.
Sobekneferu (Nefru-Sobek)(d. 1783 B.C.E.)Last
ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, reigning as a queen-pharaoh
She ruled Egypt from 1787 B.C.E. until her death. She was
a daughter of AMENEMHET IIIand the half sister of AMEN-
EMHET IV. Her name meant “the beauty of Sobek.”
Sobekneferu was listed in the TURIN CANONand in the
SAQQARA KING LIST.
She was a coregent with her father and married to
her brother, Amenemhet IV. When he died in 1787 B.C.E.,
she assumed the throne, ruling from ITJ-TAW Y, the dynas-
tic capital. Sobekneferu completed Amenemhet III’s mor-
tuary temple at HAWARA and possibly resided at times
during the year at Shedet (CROCODILOPOLIS) in the
FAIYUM.
Three headless statues of her were found at TEEL-
DAB’A, and a monument at the second cataract honored
her reign. Cylinder seals with her serekh and statuary
fragments have also been found. Her torso is in the Lou-
vre in Paris. Sobekneferu is believed to have built a pyra-
mid at MAZGHUNA, near DASHUR, but did not use it. She
and Amenemhet IV were possibly buried somewhere
nearby.
Sobek-shedty-neferu(fl. 19th century B.C.E.)Royal
woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was the consort of SENWOSRET III (r. 1878–1841
B.C.E.). Her name was listed at the LABYRINTHerected at
HAWARAby Amenemhet III.
social evolution in Egypt Ongoing traditions domi-
nated life in the Nile Valley from the earliest eras until
the end of the nation’s independence and the beginning
of Roman domination. Several social factors, such as the
divine status of the rulers and the foundation of society
based on clan structures in the NOMES, fluctuated and
were dimmed or revived over the centuries. The moral
order and the imperatives of spiritual beliefs, later sys-
tematized in the concept of ma’at, however, remained
constant, providing stability in times of peace and a cer-
tain resiliency in eras of chaos.
PREDYNASTIC PERIODThe Nile River was the dominating factor of life from the
predynastic periods before 3,000 B.C.E., as the first inhab-
itants entered the Nile Valley. The Nile’s annual inunda-
tion made human existence possible but only as a
cooperative venture of shared responsibilities based on
seasonal demands. The Nile Valley, surrounded by inhos-
pitable desert wastes, made the Egyptians aware of their
blessings.
The river and the annual inundations also turned
their attentions and energies inward, fostering a sense of
human destiny and stimulating artistic and architectural
activities that cut across social caste levels. The dominant
cultic forms of worship that developed during this time,
especially that of the god Ré, stressed a basic equality of
humans in existence on earth and in the spiritual world
beyond the grave. The caste system of the clans was
firmly in place, but commoners, or simple farmers, knew
their own value and their destinies in eternal realms. The
temple hierarchies were also being formed.
EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD
When the regions of Upper and Lower Egypt were united
by Narmer around 3,000 B.C.E., the dynastic patterns of
rule evolved slowly as nome clans took power with the
imperative of unity becoming dominant. The act of unity,
in fact, sparked the birth of Egypt, a coming into being
that focused energies and set in motion creative forces
in all walks of life. Literacy was dominant and vital as
most male children attended classes. A bureaucracy—
based on earlier nome and clan administrative tradi-
tions—arose and the compelling pantheon of deities was
already in place, worshiped at cultic bases throughout the
Nile Valley.
The ruler was supreme after the unification, although
some areas of Egypt had to be persuaded or militarily
compelled to become part of the new society, a process
that took decades. By the end of the First Dynasty
(2920–2770 B.C.E.) the rulers could wear the Double
Crown, representing Upper and Lower Egypt, with actual
authority and with the consent of the people.
During the First and Second Dynasties (2770–2649
B.C.E.), in fact, the civilizing elements of government, art,
literacy, cultic religion, and a sense of unique destiny
arose as natural elements of life on the Nile. This remark-
able sense of awareness spurred the Egyptians of all eco-
nomic and political levels toward advancement.
The pharaoh DJOSER(r. 2630–2611 B.C.E.) was a criti-
cal force in this era and demonstrates the unique social
foundations in place. He was a “living god,” embodying
the religious mandates and serving as the supreme judge
of all. He had enough power as well to marshal the
resources of the earth and human labor to embark on a
massive construction program that drew on the loyalty
and fervor of the people. Workers came from far and
wide to raise up the STEP PYRAMIDat SAQQARA, joining in
a holy union with the pharaoh and proclaiming their
belief in the divine system on earth and in the paradises
waiting beyond the grave.
Djoser’s vizier and architect, IMHOTEP, demonstrates
yet another social uniqueness of Egypt. Imhotep was not
divine and had not inherited a throne, but he had
brought artistic vision, wisdom, and fidelity to his vari-
ous offices and stood beside the pharaoh as a beloved
“companion.” This paradoxical aspect of Egypt would
continue throughout all of the dynasties. The ruler was a
god, but he did not deter the wise, the talented, or the