Encyclopedia of Sociology

BEHAVIORISM

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TERESA A. SULLIVAN

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is the conceptual framework underly-
ing the science of behavior. The science itself is
often referred to as the experimental analysis of
behavior or behavior analysis. Modern behaviorism
emphasizes the analysis of conditions that main-
tain and change behavior as well as the factors that
influence the acquisition or learning of behavior.
Behaviorists also offer concepts and analyses that
go well beyond the common-sense understand-
ing of reward and punishment. Contemporary
behaviorism provides an integrated framework
for the study of human behavior, society, and
culture.

Within the social sciences, behaviorism has
referred to the social-learning perspective that
emphasizes the importance of reinforcement prin-
ciples in regulating social behavior (McLaughlin
1971). In addition, sociologists such as George
Homans and Richard Emerson have incorporated
the principles of behavior into their theories of
elementary social interaction or exchange (Emer-
son 1972; Homans 1961). The basic idea in social
exchange approaches is that humans exchange
valued activities (e.g., giving respect and getting
help) and that these transactions are ‘‘held togeth-
er’’ by the principle of reinforcement. That is,

exchange transactions that involve reciprocal rein-

forcement by the partners increase in frequency

or probability; those transactions that are not mu-

tually reinforcing or are costly to the partners

decrease in frequency over time. There is a grow-

ing body of research literature supporting social

exchange theory as a way of understanding a

variety of social relationships.

SOME BASIC ISSUES

The roots of behaviorism lie in its philosophical

debate with introspectionism—the belief that the

mind can be revealed from a person’s reports of

thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. Behaviorists

opposed the use of introspective reports as the

basic data of psychology. These researchers ar-

gued for a natural-science approach and showed

how introspective reports of consciousness were

inadequate. Reports of internal states and experi-

ences were said to lack objectivity, were available

to only one observer, and were prone to error.

Some behaviorists used these arguments and also

others to reject cognitive explanations of behavior

(Skinner 1974; Pierce and Epling 1984; but see

Bandura 1986 for an alternative view).

The natural-science approach of behaviorism

emphasizes the search for general laws and princi-

ples of behavior. For example, the quantitative law

of effect is a mathematical statement of how the rate

of response increases with the rate of reinforce-

ment (Herrnstein 1970). Under controlled condi-

tions, this equation allows the scientist to predict

precisely and to regulate the behavior of organ-

isms. Behavior analysts suggest that this law and

other behavior principles will eventually account

for complex human behavior (McDowell 1988).

Contemporary behaviorists usually restrict

themselves to the study of observable responses

and events. Observable events are those that are

directly sensed or are made available to our senses

by instruments. The general strategy is to manipu-

late aspects of the environment and measure well-

defined responses. If behavior reliably changes

with a manipulated condition, the researcher has

established an environment-behavior relationship.

Analysis of such relationships has often resulted in

behavioral laws and principles. For example, the

principle of discrimination states that an organism