phocreatine energy shuttle in exercise and muscle
hypertrophy. In Biochemistry of Exercise VII(ed. A.W.
Taylor, P.D. Gollnick, H.J. Green, C.D. Ianuzzo, E.G.
Noble, G. Metivier & J.R. Sutton), pp. 167–178.
Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL.
Birch, R., Noble, D. & Greenhaff, P.L. (1994) The influ-
ence of dietary creatine supplementation on perfor-
mance during repeated bouts of maximal isokinetic
cycling in man. European Journal of Applied Physiology
69 , 268–270.
Bogdanis, G.C., Nevill, M.E., Boobis, L.H. & Lakomy,
H.K.A. (1996) Contribution of phosphocreatine and
aerobic metabolism to energy supply during
repeated sprint exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology
80 , 876–884.
Casey, A., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Howell, S.,
Hultman, E. & Greenhaff, P.L. (1996a) The metabolic
response of type I and II muscle fibres during
repeated bouts of maximal exercise in humans.
American Journal of Physiology 271 , E38–E43.
Casey, A., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Howell, S.,
Hultman, E. & Greenhaff, P.L. (1996b) Creatine sup-
plementation favourably affects performance and
muscle metabolism during maximal intensity exer-
cise in humans. American Journal of Physiology 271 ,
E31–E37.
Chaikelis, A.S. (1940) The effect of glycocoll (glycine)
ingestion upon the growth, strength and creatinine-
creatine excretion in man. American Journal of Physiol-
ogy 133 , 578–587.
Chanutin, A. (1926) The fate of creatine when adminis-
tered to man. Journal of Biological Chemistry 67 , 29–37.
Cooke, W.H., Grandjean, P.W. & Barnes, W.S. (1995)
Effect of oral creatine supplementation on power
output and fatigue during bicycle ergometry. Journal
of Applied Physiology 78 , 670–673.
Delanghe, J., De Slypere, J.-P., Debuyzere, M., Rob-
brecht, J., Wieme, R. & Vermeulen, A. (1989) Normal
reference values for creatine, creatinine and carnitine
are lower in vegetarians. Cinical Chemistry 35 ,
1802–1803.
Earnest, C., Almada, A. & Mitchell, T. (1996) Influence
of chronic creatine supplementation on hepatorenal
function.FASEB Journal 10 , 4588.
Field, M.L., Clark, J.F., Henderson, C., Seymour, A.M.-
L. & Radda, G. (1994) Alterations in the myocardial
creatine kinase system during chronic anaemic
hypoxia.Cardiovascular Research 28 , 86–91.
Fitch, C.D. (1977) Significance of abnormalities of crea-
tine metabolism. In Pathogenesis of Human Muscular
Dystrophies(ed. L.P. Rowland), pp. 328–340. Excerpta
Medica, Amsterdam.
Fitch, C.D. & Shields, R.P. (1966) Creatine metabolism
in skeletal muscle. I. Creatine movement across
muscle membranes.Journal of Biological Chemistry
241 , 3610–3614.
Fitch, C.D. & Sinton, D.W. (1964) A study of creatine
metabolism in diseases causing muscle wasting.
Journal of Clinical Investigation 43 , 444–452.
Fitch, C.D., Lucy, D.D., Bornhofen, J.H. & Dalrymple,
M. (1968) Creatine metabolism in skeletal muscle.
Neurology 18 , 32–39.
Fitch, C.D., Jellinek, M., Fitts, R.H., Baldwin, K.M.
& Holloszy, J.O. (1975) Phosphorylated b-
guanidinopropionate as a substitute for phosphocre-
atine in rat muscle.American Journal of Physiology 288 ,
1123–1125.
Forsberg, A.M., Nilsson, E., Werneman, J., Bergstrom, J.
& Hultman, E. (1991) Muscle composition in relation
to age and sex. Clinical Science 81 , 249–256.
Green, A.L., Hultman, E., Macdonald, I.A., Sewell, D.A.
& Greenhaff, P.L. (1996a) Carbohydrate ingestion
augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation
during creatine supplementation in man. American
Journal of Physiology 271 , E812–E826.
Green, A.L., Simpson, E.J., Littlewood, J.J., Macdonald,
I.A. & Greenhaff, P.L. (1996b) Carbohydrate inges-
tion augments creatine retention during creatine
feeding in man. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 158 ,
195–202.
Green, A.L., Macdonald, I.A. & Greenhaff, P.L. (1997)
The effects of creatine and carbohydrate on whole-
body creatine retention in vegetarians. Proceedings of
the Nutrition Society 56 , 81A.
Greenhaff, P.L., Casey, A., Short, A.H., Harris, R.C.,
Soderlund, K. & Hultman, E. (1993) Influence of oral
creatine supplementation on muscle torque during
repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in
man.Clinical Science 84 , 565–571.
Greenhaff, P.L., Bodin, K., Soderlund, K. & Hultman, E.
(1994) The effect of oral creatine supplementation
on skeletal muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis.
American Journal of Physiology 266 , E725–E730.
Harris, R.C., Soderlund, K. & Hultman, E. (1992) Eleva-
tion of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of
normal subjects by creatine supplementation.
Clinical Science 83 , 367–374.
Heymsfield, S.B., Arteaga, C., McManus, C., Smith, J. &
Moffitt, S. (1983) Measurement of muscle mass in
humans: validity of the 24-hour urinary creatinine
method.American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36 ,
478–494.
Hultman, E., Greenhaff, P.L., Ren, J.-M. & Soderlund,
K. (1991) Energy metabolism and fatigue during
intense muscle contraction. Biochemical Society
Transactions 19 , 347–353.
Hultman, E., Soderlund, K., Timmons, J., Cederblad, G.
& Greenhaff, P.L. (1996) Muscle creatine loading in
man.Journal of Applied Physiology 81 , 232–237.
Hunter, A. (1922) The physiology of creatine and creati-
nine.Physiological Reviews 2 , 586–599.
Katz, A., Sahlin, K. & Henriksson, J. (1986) Muscle ATP