summary are young, beginning gymnasts
averaging age 9, club gymnasts, college male
and female gymnasts, competitive gymnasts,
national team gymnasts, and former competitive
gymnasts. Of these groups, only the former com-
petitive gymnasts had average energy intakes
that exceeded the recommended level. College
team gymnasts from the United States were the
oldest of the competitive gymnasts evaluated
(mean age, 19.7 years) and had the lowest daily
energy intakes of all the groups evaluated. The
second lowest daily energy intake was seen in
the USA national team members. It appears from
this summary that gymnasts involved in the
highest levels of competition are most likely to
have the greatest differential between energy
intake and energy requirement.
The youngest gymnasts to be evaluated for
energy intake were junior elite gymnasts ranging
in age from 7 to 10 years (mean age, 9.4 years;
Benardot et al. 1989). These gymnasts were
serious about gymnastics, spending approxi-
mately 3–4 h in the gym each day. Despite this
heavy practice schedule, they had an average
energy intake of 69.1 MJ (1650 kcal), which was
predicted to be 76% of their energy requirement.
The findings for an older group (11–14 years)
of junior elite gymnasts were similar, with
gymnasts consuming an average of 7.1 MJ
(1700 kcal) (Benardot et al. 1989).
An even greater energy deficit was found in a
group of 20 Turkish gymnasts, averaging 11.5
years of age, who trained between 5 and 6 h daily
(Ersoy 1991). These gymnasts had an energy
intake of 6.6 MJ (1570 kcal), a level of intake that
was predicted to be only 59% of the recom-
mended level. A majority of these gymnasts
(75%) had reported feeling dizzy, weak, and
short of breath during gymnastics practices
(Ersoy 1991).
A survey of Italian club gymnasts (involved in
competitions but not at the ‘elite’ level) who
averaged 12.3 years of age revealed a similar
trend in underconsumption of total energy (Reg-
gianiet al. 1989). These gymnasts had an average
energy intake of 6.5 MJ · day–1(1550 kcal · day–1),
which was 78% of the recommended level. The
592 sport-specific nutrition
authors point out that this level of intake is con-
sistent for the standard of intake when adjusted
by body weight (180 kJ · kg–1, 43 kcal · kg–1). How-
ever, it appears that this level of energy intake
does not meet the additional energy demands of
growth, which should be an expectation for
12-year-olds. According to the World Health
Organization, the daily energy requirement of
10–14-year-old children with average activity
levels is between 189 and 227 kJ · kg–1 (45.2–
54.2 kcal · kg–1) (Lemons 1989).
In a study of recreational club gymnasts (mean
age, 14.8 years), it was found that energy intake
was 7.3 MJ · day–1(1744 kcal · day–1), or 99% of the
standard requirement (Calabrese 1985). A similar
finding was observed in a group of 13 female
high-school gymnasts, who consumed 8 MJ ·
day–1(1923 kcal · day–1), or 96% of the recom-
mended intake and 84% of the predicted require-
ment (Moffatt 1984). It is important to note that
these two groups were performing at the lowest
competitive level of the groups evaluated, and
came the closest to meeting energy requirements.
In a study of 22 elite adolescent female
Swedish gymnasts (mean age, 14.8 years) evalu-
ated for energy intake, it was determined that
they consumed approximately 3035±2436 kJ
(725±582 kcal) of energy less than their predi-
cted requirement (11.1±1.36 MJ, 2653±325 kcal)
(Lindholmet al. 1995). This value takes into
account the gymnasts’ current height, weight,
gender, age (growth requirement), and daily
activity (including an average daily gymnastics
practice of approximately 3 h). This value can be
compared to that of a reference group of equiva-
lently aged non-gymnast females who experi-
enced an average predicted energy deficit of 1879
±1528 kJ (449±365 kcal) compared to their need
(8883±1005 kJ, 2122±240 kcal) (Lindholm et al.
1995). Compared to established standards, over
50% of these gymnasts were below the standard,
while the majority of the non-gymnasts fell
within the standard of intake (Lindholm et al.
1995).
Members of the United States National Team
(average age, 15.8) were evaluated in 1994, and
were found to consume either 5119 or 6258 kJ ·