cantly correlate with swimmers’ performance in
a 91.4-m freestyle (Stager et al. 1984). In addition,
numerous studies have shown the importance of
muscle strength and power in performance of
competitive swimming (Sharp et al. 1982; Costill
et al. 1985b, 1986; Sharp 1986; Cavanaugh &
Musch 1989). Thus, development and mainte-
nance of lean mass to preserve muscle strength
and power should be a priority for competitive
swimmers. Unfortunately, this seems to be a dif-
ficult task during the heavy training phase of
their season as studies have shown decrements
in muscle power despite continued resistance
training during midseason (Sharp 1986;
Cavanaugh & Musch 1989) followed by
increased power during the taper phase of train-
ing (Costill et al. 1985b). Whether these changes
in muscle power are related to a chronic increase
in muscle protein catabolism followed by an
attenuation of muscle wasting during the taper
phase has not been studied.
There are other studies which provide indirect
evidence of an enhanced protein need during
swimming training. Kirwan et al. (1988) and
Morgan et al. (1988) showed evidence of muscle
damage with a twofold increase in serum crea-
tine kinase activity and increased muscle sore-
ness in male college swimmers when training
volume was increased from 4266 m · day–1 to
8970 m · day–1. In another study on the effects of
swimming training on protein catabolism,
Lemonet al. (1989) observed an increase in serum
urea concentration and urinary urea excretion
after a 4572-m training session in competitive
swimmers. Conversely, Mussini et al. (1985)
found no evidence of increased muscle proteoly-
sis using postexercise urinary 3-methyl-histidine
excretion in a group of 16–20-year-old males per-
forming a 2000-m competitive swimming train-
ing session. It should be noted, however, that the
training volume used in this study was consider-
ably less than that used in the previous studies
and less than that typically used by most
competitive swimmers.
Although the United States recommended
daily allowance (RDA) for protein is set at
0.8 g · kg–1for adults, Friedman and Lemon (1989)
616 sport-specific nutrition
suggest that a protein intake of approximately
1.5 g · kg–1 may be more appropriate to sup-
port endurance exercise training. In addition,
Marableet al. (1979) recommend a protein intake
up to 2–3 g · kg–1to support the muscle building
requirements of resistance training. Since com-
petitive swimming training employs con-
siderable involvement in both endurance and
resistance training, their protein needs may
lie somewhere within this range of about
1.5–2 g · kg–1· day–1. The typical young-adult
female competitive swimmer in the Netherlands
consumes approximately 50–60 g protein · day–1,
translating to about a protein intake of 0.9–
1.2 g · kg–1· day–1 (van Erp-Baart et al. 1989).
These authors also report the typical protein
intake of male swimmers in the range of 80–
100 g · day–1, or a protein intake of about 1.1–
1.3 g · kg–1· day–1.
Perhaps if swimmers maintained a higher
protein intake and a higher carbohydrate intake,
and consumed enough calories to match the
energy demands of their training, responses such
as loss of muscle power in the middle of the
season, chronic muscle fatigue, overtraining, and
recovery of power and performance ability
during taper would be lessened. Elimination
of these responses might be expected to result
in improved performance of these athletes
throughout their competitive season, instead
of only at the end of a taper period. However,
many coaches worry that the large performance
improvement usually observed with the season-
ending taper would no longer occur if the swim-
mers were not pushed to the edge of overtraining
throughout the early and midseason phases.
In addition, they often fear that physiological
capacities such as aerobic endurance and anaero-
bic power will not be fully developed in their
athletes if training volume is reduced. Conse-
quently, training for competitive swimming will
likely continue to place extraordinary demands
on the young athletes who choose this as their
sport.