REFLECTIONS ON CHARACTER AND LEADERSHIP

204 REFLECTIONS ON CHARACTER AND LEADERSHIP

He introduced a uniform currency system throughout the empire and

promoted trade and commerce. Exceeding the bounds of conventional

rulers, he manipulated the local religions to legitimize his own rule by

having himself named a god.

As a leader, Alexander was without peer. He could be magnanimous

toward defeated enemies and extremely loyal toward his friends. As a

general, he led by example, giving directions from the front, suffering

the same wounds as his soldiers. He was extremely concerned about his

soldiers, encouraging one or another whenever possible (Green, 1991 ;

Ashley, 1997 ).

Seeds of discontent

Though these traits encouraged loyalty among the men, Alexander was

also known for his ferocious temper. He once, in fact, killed a close

associate in a drunken rage. His adoption of Persian ways and his attempt

to be seen as a living god became bones of contention within the admin-

istration and on the front lines, creating estrangement. His vision of

empire based on tolerance — that is, on giving equal status to the Persians

and other conquered peoples — caused increasing resentment among his

own people. In particular, his Macedonian offi cers objected to his

attempts to force them to intermarry with the Persians. They were also

troubled by how brutally Alexander put down an imagined conspiracy,

and by other instances of harsh treatment.

A victim of His Own Success?

Alexander was clearly a multifaceted personality, with his compensatory

strivings, his quest (actively encouraged by his mother) to do better than

his father, his recourse to ‘ fl i g h t i n t o a c t i o n ’ to ward off feared depressive

reactions, and his cyclothymic characteristics (his tendency toward

radical mood swings) (Millon, 1996 ; Solomon, 2001 ). In addition, he

was in great need of positive ‘ mirroring ’ for affi rmation, using his close

friend Hephaiston as alter ego to establish greater psychological security.

Moreover, like many leaders before and after him, Alexander became a

victim of hubris — succumbing to excessive arrogance and pride. The

combined effects of unbroken victories, unparalleled wealth, absolute

and unchallenged power, extraordinary physical stress, alcoholic bouts,

and isolation began to take their toll. As his advisers grew less and less