INTRODUCTION
The ways in which people from different national and cultural back-
grounds differ are so numerous, and frequently so subtle — making
interactions of any kind so fraught with possible misunderstanding,
offensiveness, and social gaffes — that the growth of global business over
the last 50 years might justifi ably be seen as an extraordinary human
anthropological achievement. There are huge differences in national
character, culture, and verbal and body language. Some people are
serious, inexpressive, and undemonstrative; others will clasp you in their
arms, kiss you on both cheeks whatever your gender, raise their voices,
and gesticulate. I once amused myself with a ‘ time and motion ’ study to
see how often people meeting in a caf é would touch each other. In one
hour in Puerto Rico, four people touched each other 70 times. In my
local caf é in central Paris, four people touched each other 50 times. In
London the number was fi ve. In some cultures, personal relationships
have to be established before effective communication and interaction
can take place; in others, people want to cut the crap and get down to
business. Attitudes toward time can cause great confusion. In some cul-
tures, ‘ She ’ s always late, ’ represents a serious criticism, while in others
it is a greater social solecism to arrive early — or even at the appointed
time.
Understandably, leadership styles differ radically as well. Leadership
style lies on a wide spectrum that ranges between consensual, techno-
cratic, autocratic, political, centralized, democratic, and patriarchal.
Leadership style will be refl ected in organizational form. I have always
been interested in the relationship between personality, leadership style,
organizational culture, and organization. Organizational structure in
some countries is tall, in others fl at. Yet, in spite of all these differences,
somehow we all have to fi nd ways of talking to each other and working