As noted earlier, different career theories tend to make differ-
ent assumptions about the origins of individual differences in abil-
ities and interests, but behavioral genetic research suggests that
many common assumptions are mistaken. I review next a family of
mistaken theories that Scarr (1997) has summarized as socialization
theory.I then describe a new family of theories called nature-nurture
partnership theory by Eysenck (1998) that has emerged from several
decades of genetically sensitive family studies. Whereas socializa-
tion theory sees us mutely following the life compasses that our cul-
ture sets for us, the latter theory points to the quiet but persistent
genetic compasses with which nature equips each of us at birth and
which vie with culture in shaping our travels through life. In the
closing section of this chapter, I describe the implications of this
biosocial perspective for career counseling.
“Mistaken” Socialization Theory of Individual Differences
Although often giving lip service to the role of genes, most if not
all career theories seem to assume that our parents and teachers,
friends and enemies, and socioeconomic circumstances make us
who we are most fundamentally. This socialization theory of devel-
opment is shown in the top half of Figure 4.5. According to the the-
ory, the differences among us may be highly genetic at birth, but
(the theory continues) we are increasingly shaped and reshaped by
the different environments to which we are exposed. So, for
instance, the theory predicts that children from advantaged, sup-
portive environments will be more self-confident, brighter, and
achieve more, owing to the successive good experiences that their
environments provide. Children who are continually exposed to art
and high culture will develop Artistic interests, just as those raised
by entrepreneurs will develop Enterprising interests. In like man-
ner, the theory predicts that children who grow up in neglectful or
intellectually impoverished environments will tend to develop
unfavorable traits owing to their unfavorable experiences.
108 CAREER CHOICE AND DEVELOPMENT