- The contexts (environments) in which people operate are
considered neutral or relatively unimportant; thus, the focus
of inquiry should be observable actions of human beings.
One of the assertions listed about logical positivism is probably
erroneous, at least insofar as it pertains to theories of career choice
and development. That error is in the assertion that people who
assume the logical positivist position consider the environment to
be neutral. Sociological theorists such as Blau and Duncan (1967)
and psychological theorist such as Holland (1997) have spoken to
the influence of the environment on the individual, and the cul-
tural context in which occupational choice takes place is receiving
increasing attention. Blustein and Ellis (2000), writing from a posi-
tion that diverges from logical positivism—social construction-
ism—actually drew on the tools of logical positivist thinkers (for
example, analysis of variance, item response theory, and generaliz-
ability theory) to generate recommendations for making tests more
culturally sensitive. They note that the argument they advance is
not new. The fact is, as Blustein and Ellis tacitly admit, logical pos-
itivists have long been concerned about the impact of the environ-
ment on human behavior and the interaction between the two.
Theories Rooted in Social Constructionism
Although logical positivism is still the dominant philosophical posi-
tion held by social scientists, an increasing number are rejecting it in
favor of another philosophical position: social constructionism
(Collin & Young, 1986; Hoshmand, 1989; Wilber, 1989). The essen-
tial tenet of social constructionism is that people actively construct
their own reality; they are not simply passive recipients of it. Wilber
(1989) summarizes some of the sentiments of the social construction-
ists when he indicates that much of the knowledge we possess, includ-
ing knowledge about music, art, and philosophy, cannot be verified in
the sense that logical positivism requires. He goes on to indicate that
logical positivists would also have to exclude purpose, values, and
INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND CHOICE 13