Finally, (Furnham, 2001) focuses on the cross-cultural validity of
Holland’s theory and a reconsideration of the concept of congruence
and fit and improvements in research methodology and consider-
ation of alternative approaches to studying person-environment
interaction.
Congruence Indices. An unusually rich set of methods has evolved
for calculating the agreement or fit between person and environ-
ment type codes (Camp & Chartrand, 1992; Gore, 1995; Young,
Tokar, & Subich, 1998). Further, the evidence suggests that the
method selected can influence the degree of fit found (Spokane,
1985). One particularly thoughtful analysis of the congruence liter-
ature (Assouline & Meir, 1987) conducted a meta-analysis of the
congruence literature and compared indexes graphically (see Figure
9.5). Assouline and Meir’s findings show that the indices of congru-
ence are not interchangeable.
Three recent studies of the congruence indices (Camp &
Chartrand, 1992; Brown & Gore, 1994; Young et al., 1998) com-
pared multiple indices in an attempt to clarify differences among
them. Camp and Chartrand (1992) studied 157 undergraduates
using thirteen congruence indices and six outcome measures; simi-
larly to Assouline & Meir (1987), they found that the magnitude
of the congruence correlation was often dependent on the index
used. Some of the indices yielded quite different findings on the
same data. Camp and Chartrand reasoned that indices that do not
incorporate either the circumplex or the order presumptions of the
model should not be used in congruence studies. This study war-
rants replication, however, as the sample was entirely female and
the measure used was the CAI—one that is almost never used in
congruence studies. The subjects were all psychology majors, which
should have yielded an adequate array of types. However, the high
correlation between aptitude and congruence indicates that the
subjects may have been quite homogeneous. The “Monte Carlo”
method (using the same data but with multiple indices for compar-
ing utility) was a notable advance.
398 CAREER CHOICE AND DEVELOPMENT