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immunomodulation. HSCs, genetically engineered with tumor-specifi c receptors,
have been transplanted into mice injected with malignant tumor cells. HSCs pro-
duce a variety of immune cells that selectively target and destroy the cancer.
Incorporation of ‘omics’ data into genetic engineering of stem cells facilitates
their use as vectors for delivery of therapeutic genes into specifi c cancer cells. Thus
stem cell-guided gene therapy becomes a promising new frontier in personalized
and targeted therapy of cancer (Mavroudi et al. 2014 ). One risk for therapeutic use
of stem cells is their malignant transformation, which can be prevented by appropri-
ate measures.
Personalized Vaccines
The immunogenetic basis for variations in immune response to vaccines in humans
is not well understood. Many factors can contribute to the heterogeneity of vaccine-
induced immune responses, including polymorphisms of immune response genes.
Identifi cation of genes involved directly or indirectly in the generation of the
immune response to vaccines is important. Associations between SNPs in HLA
class I and class II genes, cytokine, cell surface receptor, and toll-like receptor genes
and variations in immune responses to measles vaccine have been reported (Dhiman
et al. 2008 ). Such information may provide further understanding of genetic varia-
tions that infl uence the generation of protective immune responses to vaccines, and
eventually the development of new vaccines. Rapid advances in developing person-
alized vaccines are already occurring for hepatitis B, infl uenza, measles, mumps,
rubella, anthrax and smallpox vaccines. In addition, newly available data suggest
that some vaccine-related adverse events may also be genetically determined and,
therefore, predictable.
Personalized Cancer Vaccines
Cancer vaccines attempt to harness the specifi city and resistance potentials of the
human immune system. The aim of cancer vaccines is to stimulate the immune
system to recognize, attack, and destroy tumor cells. In contrast to vaccines for
prophylaxis of infectious diseases, cancer vaccines are therapeutic (Jain 2010 ).
These are described in more detail in Chap. 10.
Antisense Therapy
Antisense molecules are synthetic segments of DNA or RNA, designed to mirror
specifi c mRNA sequences and block protein production. The use of antisense drugs
to block abnormal disease-related proteins is referred to as antisense therapeutics.