168 M.V. Moreno-Arribas and M.C. Polo
biogenic amine contamination of wine is believed to take place during malolactic
fermentation.
A number of studies have reported no remarkable rise in the concentration of
biogenic amines during alcoholic fermentation, concluding that yeasts do not appear
to be responsible for the production of most amines found in industrial commercial
red wines (Herbert et al. 2005; Marcobal et al. 2006a). Figure 6A.2 illustrates the
evolution of biogenic amines during industrial red wine winemaking. Most contam-
ination of wine by biogenic amines takes place during natural or spontaneous malo-
lactic fermentation (Landete et al. 2005; Marcobal et al. 2006a). Lactic acid bacteria
are available in low populations in healthy grapes and are transferred to the cellar
equipment where they develop rapidly. These indigenous bacteria are responsible
for spontaneous malolactic fermentation. However, the metabolic characteristics of
this microbial flora are not well known and in some strains enzymatic decarboxylase
activities could be involved in biogenic amine production.
6A.3.1 Presence of Biogenic Amines in Wines: Toxicological
Aspects
Problems related to biogenic amine formation affect numerous fermented food
products consumed more frequently than wine, such as cheese, beer, some fer-
mented sausages and meat products among others (Fern ́andez-Garc ́ıa et al. 1999;
Izquierdo-Pulido et al. 2000; Kaniou et al. 2001), which have higher levels of
these compounds. However, in alcoholic drinks, especially wine, biogenic amines
have received more attention, because ethanol can increase the effects on health by
directly or indirectly inhibiting the enzymes responsible for the detoxification of
these compounds (Maynard and Schenker 1996). The human organism easily toler-
ates low concentrations of biogenic amines, since these are efficiently broken down
by mono- and diaminoxidase enzymes in the intestinal tract. Although there are
differences in individual susceptibility to intoxication by biogenic amines, several
pharmacological reactions can take place after excess intake of these compounds.
The best known reactions are those caused by histamine. More specifically, some
histamine-induced symptoms include rash, edema, headaches, hypotension, vomit-
ing, palpitations, diarrhoea and heart problems. Other amines, such as tyramine and
phenylamine, can cause hypertension and other symptoms associated with vasocon-
striction caused by the release of noradrenaline (especially cerebral hemorrhages
and migraine). Although putrescine and cadaverine are not themselves toxic, they
can increase the toxicity of histamine, tyramine and phenylethylamine, since they
interfere in detoxification reactions. Moreover, putrescine and cadaverine can have
negative effects on wine aroma, giving them flavors of putrefaction or rotting flesh,
respectively.
Normally, if a low concentration of biogenic amines is ingested, these are quickly
detoxified in the human body by amine oxidases or through conjugation. Amine