The Cold War and Civil Rights 263personally deplored the Brown decision, he could not allow defi ance of
national authority to go unchecked, so he federalized the National
Guard and dispatched regular army troops to reopen the school and
keep order. What many southerners had feared had now taken place,
namely the executive using his authority as commander in chief to
compel obedience to a court order. Now it was obvious to all that the
federal government, when necessary, could and would apply military
force to protect the rights of African-Americans. Discrimination based
on race in whatever guise was now legally over.
In the 1960 s the civil rights movement picked up speed when four
black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina, entered a
whites- only lunch counter, sat down, and refused an order to leave.
Many other “sit-ins” followed, especially among young white and black
students who protested segregation or took “freedom rides” on inter-
state buses to force the attention of the public to the discrimination
that was still practiced in the South. Violence broke out in Mississippi
and Alabama, in which fire hoses and dogs were used, and resulted
in the arrests of thousands of black protesters. These atrocities against
unarmed citizens helped win passage of a new Civil Rights Act in
1960 ; it provided criminal penalties for bombings and other actions
that attempted to obstruct court orders. It also authorized judges to ap-
point referees to assist African-Americans to register and vote. Al-
though it was not a major advance against racial discrimination, Lyndon
Johnson hoped it would be an expression of “responsible moderation”
and “common sense.”
At the Democratic nominating convention in Los Angeles in
mid-July, a strong civil rights plank was adopted, but southerners did
not walk out in protest. On the first ballot the convention chose Sena-
tor John Kennedy of Massachusetts along with Lyndon Johnson as his
running mate. At the Republican convention Richard M. Nixon was
put forward, as well as Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts. The
parties also endorsed a strong civil rights bill and the desegregation of
public schools.
It was a close race, the closest since 1884 , when Grover Cleveland
eked out a victory over James G. Blaine. In the 1960 contest, John Ken-
nedy gathered 100 , 000 more votes than Nixon, out of a record 68. 8
million votes cast. Kennedy’s total was 34 , 226 , 731 popular and 303