Adolescent Development and Health 469who do not meet medical criteria for abnormality may appear
very different from the majority of their peers: girls who still
have completely prepubertal bodies at the age of 13 or who
are fully developed before the age of 12, and boys who are
still prepubertal at 15 or appear fully adult by the age of 12.5
(references are to Tanner Stage 1 versus Tanner Stage 5; see
•Physical DevelopmentŽ).
Adolescents who are in the lowest 10% to 15% and the
highest 10% to 15% of this distribution are considered to be
early versus late maturers, normal variations of development
that most likely re”ect their genetic inheritance. A series
of classic studies beginning in the 1950s (see Conger &
Galambos, 1997) found that early maturation provided a psy-
chosocial advantage for boys, who more often took leadership
roles and were perceived by teachers and peers as more mature
and responsible than boys maturing •on time.ŽIn contrast, late
maturing boys were more likely to act •the class clown,Žwere
perceived as being more immature and self-conscious by
teachers and peers, and were less likely to be popular or to be
leaders. Nottelmann et al. (1987) con“rmed that adolescent
adjustment problems were more common for late-maturing
boys, and Crockett and Petersen (1987) report a linear rela-
tionship between timing of puberty and self-esteem.
These differences are hypothesized to re”ect the fact that
early maturing boys are taller, heavier, and more muscular,
all of which are advantageous for sports (an asset highly
prized by peers at this age) and makes them closer in size to
girls of the same age. Also, their more adult appearance pre-
sumably encourages adults and peers to treat them differ-
ently, giving them more responsibility and turning more to
them for assistance. Analogously, late-maturing boys cannot
•throw their weight around,Ž both literally and “guratively,
to the same extent.
In a longitudinal follow-up, which continued through
age 38, men who had matured early retained their psychosocial
advantage (Livson & Peskin, 1980). As adults, early maturing
males were found to be more responsible, cooperative, socia-
ble, and self-contained (although late maturers were not totally
without assets, being more insightful and creatively playful). It
is important to note that this advantageous effect was main-
tained despite the fact that, on the average, late-maturing boys
eventually attain greater adult height than early maturing boys
because they continue to grow at a childhood rate before be-
ginning their growth spurt; little additional growth occurs after
the conclusion of the growth spurt. Greater height clearly pro-
vides a psychosocial advantage for American males and yet
the advantage of early maturation appears to outweigh the ad-
vantage of greater height in adulthood for late maturers.
The evidence regarding female development is mixed,
with some reports that both extremes are disadvantageous,
especially for early maturing girls (Susman et al., 1985),
while other studies report no substantial effects for girls
(Nottelmann et al., 1987). Simmons, Blyth, and McKinney
(1983) report that pubertal status appears problematic when
it places a girl in a different or deviant position from her
peers. The impact of early or late puberty may well vary as a
function of a girl•s socioeconomic status and the degree of
tolerance and acceptance of her appearance within her social
environment.
From a psychosocial standpoint, early physical matura-
tion is advantageous for American boys whereas the ideal for
girls is to mature exactly at the average time and rate. How-
ever, adolescents cannot design the nature of their pubertal
development, leaving late-maturing boys (especially) and
early maturing girls at potential risk for adjustment problems
and dif“culties with peer status and body image. In addition
to appearing unusually immature, late-maturing boys have a
disadvantage in addressing their developmental tasks: It is
dif“cult to incorporate one•s new sexuality in self-image or
body image until one has developed some degree of sexual
maturity, or learn to handle sexual drives before they are ex-
perienced. These developmental issues are delayed and thus
add to the number of tasks that must be addressed simultane-
ously at a later chronological age. Late maturers do not have
the same option as other teenagers to focus sequentially on
different developmental tasks and thus face an additional
challenge.
In the absence of data to guide intervention, clinical
experience suggests that even brief therapy can be helpful
for late-maturing boys. Goals for treatment include (a) de-
veloping skills that are valued by peers (e.g., sports that are
less dependent on size, computer skills, and video games),
(b) participating in organized activities (e.g., Scouts) where
leadership responsibilities (based on abilities rather than
appearance) are conferred by adults, and (c) enhancing so-
cial skills, especially with peers. With early-maturing girls,
publicity regarding the increasing incidence of early devel-
opment (Lemonick, 2000) has prompted increased attention
to the plight of girls with clear outward evidence of sexual
maturity at ages 6, 7, and 8. Endocrinologists are increas-
ingly more reluctant to slow development with hormone
therapy, as they did previously with girls under 8, leaving
young girls with bodies that are considered normal med-
ically but which are obviously very different from their
peers. In this case, goals for therapy include (a) parents
remaining alert to potential sexual harassment and abuse,
(b) promoting the choice of clothing, books, music, and
activities that are appropriate for a girl•s chronological age,
(c) developing skills and talents that are unrelated to physi-
cal appearance, (d) enhancing social skills with female