Psychology of Space Exploration
Such troubles were not limited to the English. The French followed a sim-
ilar pattern, beginning in 1766 and continuing through 1800, when scientists
sailed with numerous expeditions that were summarily characterized by conflict
and contention between the crews and scientists.^30 Finney further notes that such
complaints are found in journals of early Russian scientists, as well as American sci-
entists on the four-year-long United States Exploring Expedition that sailed from
Norfolk in 1838 with a contingent of 12 scientists.^31
Modern development of specialized ships complete with laboratories and
equipment dedicated to oceanographic research has been primarily organized and
maintained by universities and oceanographic institutes. Yet even aboard these
dedicated floating research vessels, conflict between the ship’s crew and the scien-
tists whom they serve has not been eliminated. A dissertation study conducted by a
resident at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography during 1973 concluded that ten-
sion between the two groups was inevitable because they formed two essentially
separate and distinct subcultures with different values and goals, as well as different
educational backgrounds and class memberships.^32
Finney argues that the same subcultures have become evident in the space pro-
gram with the development of the role of payload specialists, who are considered
visiting scientists rather than part of the elite astronaut corps. Tensions between
payload specialists in pursuit of the scientific goals and the crew in pursuit of mis-
sion completion have routinely been in evidence. Finney eloquently states:
[I]f space research were to be made as routine to the extent that
ocean research now is, subcultural differences, and hence ten-
sions, between scientist and those pilots, stationkeepers, and oth-
ers whose job it will be to enable researchers to carry out their tasks
in space may become critical considerations. If so, space analogues
of the mechanisms that have evolved to accommodate differences- J. Dunmore, French Explorers of the Pacific, vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965).
- A. von Chamisso, Reise um die Welt mit der Romanoffischen Entdeckungs Expedition in den
Jahren 1815–1818 (Berlin: Weidmann, 1856); W. Stanton, The Great United States Exploring
Expedition of 1838–1842 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975). - Bernard and Killworth, “On the Social Structure of an Ocean Going Research Vessel”:
145; Bernard and Killworth, “Scientist at Sea: A Case Study in Communications at Sea.”