64 The Meaning of Food
food is prestige, status and wealth...It is a means of communication and
interpersonal relations, such as an “apple for the teacher” or an expression
of hospitality, friendship, affection, neighbourliness, comfort and sympathy
in time of sadness or danger. It symbolises strength, athleticism, health and
success. It is a means of pleasure and self gratification and a relief from stress.
It is feasts, ceremonies, rituals, special days and nostalgia for home, family and
the “good old days”. It is an expression of individuality and sophistication,
a means of self expression and a way of revolt. Most of all it is tradition,
custom and security...There are Sunday foods and weekday foods, family
foods and guest foods; foods with magical properties and health and disease
foods. (p. 301)This chapter draws mostly upon sociological and anthropological litera-
tures on the meaning of food which are influenced by the theoretical work
of Lévi-Strauss (e.g., 1965), Douglas (1966, 1975), and Mennell (1987).
It also draws on the experiences and writings of psychotherapists such as
Orbach (1978, 1986) and Lawrence (1984).
Food Classification Systems
Lévi-Strauss (e.g., 1965) and Douglas (1966) argued that food can be under-
stood in terms of a deep underlying structure which is common across
different cultures. Drawing on this perspective, Helman (1984) outlined
five types of food classification systems:
- Food versus nonfooddelineates things which are edible and those
which are not. For example, wheat is food, grass is not food; frogs can
be food, worms rarely are. - Sacred versus profane foodsdifferentiates between those foods which
are validated by religious beliefs and those which are not. For example,
cloven-hoofed animals which chew the cud are sacred for Muslims and
Jews (as long as they are halal or kosher), pig products are profane for
Jews and Muslims, and beef is profane for Sikhs and Hindus. - Parallel food classificationsindicates how foodstuffs can be described
as “hot” (e.g., wheat, potato, and garlic) or “cold” (e.g., rice, peas, and
beans). Within this framework health is equated as a balance between
hot and cold foods. “Cold” illnesses such as arthritis are treated with
hot foods and sometimes blamed on eating too many cold foods, and