“Our Expiring Libertie” 1658–1660Oliver’s death and promising to maintain the friendships, alliances, and treaty obli-
gations then in place (CPW V.2, 850–1). He probably wrote similar letters at about
the same time to several other states, though he did not retain copies.^1 In October,
Richard protests himself unable “in this beginning of my office and dignity” to act
immediately on the request of Charles X of Sweden for military assistance against
Denmark, but assures him that he will continue England’s alliance with Sweden
and will pray for his preservation “as a safeguard and defense for the orthodox
church” (852). On November 13, he acknowledges Charles X’s condolences for
Oliver’s death, informs him that he is sending a fleet to the Baltic to supply the
requested aid, and refers him for details to the newly appointed ambassador Philip
Meadows (855–6).^2 On November 23 Milton probably marched in the magnifi-
cent funeral procession from Somerset House to Westminster to deposit the effigies
of Oliver in the chapel of Henry VII, where his body had earlier been interred.
Milton, Marvell, and Dryden from the Secretariat were among the government
officials and household staff who were allotted money to buy mourning for that
occasion.^3 Their names appear in the order of march, with the direction that they
were to wait in the Privy Chamber with some other clerks, chaplains, and ministers
until time to move out; the list pairs Milton with Marvell, who would have had to
lead him.^4 If he took part, Milton was no doubt dismayed as Marvell and others
described the cost and vanity of that occasion: the magnificently caparisoned and
plumed horses and splendid chariot, the elaborate procession through the streets,
and especially the regal emblems – purple and ermine robes, crown, sword, scepter,
and orb – which decked Cromwell’s effigy.^5
Though he accepted Richard’s Protectorate, Milton seems to have felt that the
time was auspicious to remind his countrymen of their, and his, notable deeds in
support of a different political ideal. Even before Oliver’s death he had begun revis-
ing his Defensio, that proud manifesto for the regicide, popular sovereignty, and a
commonwealth government without King, Protector, or House of Lords. He wanted,
no doubt, to perfect the work he considered his greatest accomplishment to date,
and also to correct any textual errors that Salmasius might point out in his long-
expected posthumous answer. Working with an amanuensis it would have taken
Milton some time to hear the text read and to make over 250 small changes and
corrections that sometimes involve adding or deleting whole lines.^6 He published it
in early October,^7 adding a lengthy postscript set apart from the earlier text under a
line. It offers the Defensio as still useful to teach Englishmen to value the “civil
freedom” so nobly won a decade ago, and to cast off the chains forged by ignorance
and pretended religion, “unless they themselves prefer and deserve to be slaves”
(CPW IV.1, 536). He also promises a comparable but greater work that will benefit
“men of every land and, particularly, all Christian men,” probably a reference to
the Latin theological treatise De Doctrina Christiana, which he had been working on
for many years. Its scope, its use of Latin, and its address to the learned throughout
Europe would seem to Milton to complement and indeed surpass the Defensio.^8